Sunday, 27 August 2017
The Story of Village Palampur
Palampur is a small village having about 450 families. It is 3 km away from Raiganj - a big village. Shahpur is the nearest town to the village.
Main Production Activities
Farming is the main production activity in the village Palampur. Most of the people are dependent on farming for their livelihood. Non-farming activities such as dairy, small-scale manufacturing (e.g. activities of weavers and potters, etc.), transport, etc., are carried out on a limited scale.
Factors of Production (Or Requirements for Production of Goods and Services)
Land, labour and capital are the basic requirements for production of goods and services which are popularly known as factors of production. Land includes all free gifts of nature, e.g., soil, water, forests, minerals, etc. Labour means human effort which of course includes physical as well as mental labour. Physical capital is the third requirement for production. Physical capital includes fixed capital (e.g. tools, machines, building, etc.) and raw materials such as seeds for the farmer, yarn for the weaver.
Important Changes in Farm Activities
Land area under cultivation is virtually fixed. However, some wastelands in India had been converted into cultivable land after 1960.
Over the years, there have been important changes in the way of farming, which have allowed the farmers to produce more crops from the same amount of land.
These changes include :
(a) Multiple cropping farming
(b) Use of modern farming methods.
Due to these changes (in the late 1960s) productivity of land has increased substantially which is known as Green Revolution. Farmers of Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh were the first to try out the modern farming methods in India.
Labour : After land, labour is the next basic factor of production. Small farmers provide their own labour, whereas medium and large farmers make use of hired labour to work on their fields.
Capital : After land and labour, capital is another basic factor of production. All categories of farmers (e.g. small, medium and large) require capital. Small farmers borrow from large farmers or the village moneylenders or the traders who supply them various inputs for cultivation.
Modern farming requires a great deal of capital.
Sale of Surplus Farm Products
Farmers produce crops on their lands by using the three factors of production, viz. land,
labour and capital. They retain a part of produce for self-consumption and sell the surplus in the nearby market. That part of farm produce which is sold in the market is called marketable surplus. Small farmers have little surplus output. It is the medium and large farmers only who have substantial surplus produce for selling in the market.
Non-farm activities
Out of every 100 workers in the rural areas in India, only 24 are engaged in non-farm activities. There is a variety of non-farm activities in the villages. Dairy, small scale manufacturing, transport, etc., fall under this category.
Main Production Activities
Farming is the main production activity in the village Palampur. Most of the people are dependent on farming for their livelihood. Non-farming activities such as dairy, small-scale manufacturing (e.g. activities of weavers and potters, etc.), transport, etc., are carried out on a limited scale.
Factors of Production (Or Requirements for Production of Goods and Services)
Land, labour and capital are the basic requirements for production of goods and services which are popularly known as factors of production. Land includes all free gifts of nature, e.g., soil, water, forests, minerals, etc. Labour means human effort which of course includes physical as well as mental labour. Physical capital is the third requirement for production. Physical capital includes fixed capital (e.g. tools, machines, building, etc.) and raw materials such as seeds for the farmer, yarn for the weaver.
Important Changes in Farm Activities
Land area under cultivation is virtually fixed. However, some wastelands in India had been converted into cultivable land after 1960.
Over the years, there have been important changes in the way of farming, which have allowed the farmers to produce more crops from the same amount of land.
These changes include :
(a) Multiple cropping farming
(b) Use of modern farming methods.
Due to these changes (in the late 1960s) productivity of land has increased substantially which is known as Green Revolution. Farmers of Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh were the first to try out the modern farming methods in India.
Labour : After land, labour is the next basic factor of production. Small farmers provide their own labour, whereas medium and large farmers make use of hired labour to work on their fields.
Capital : After land and labour, capital is another basic factor of production. All categories of farmers (e.g. small, medium and large) require capital. Small farmers borrow from large farmers or the village moneylenders or the traders who supply them various inputs for cultivation.
Modern farming requires a great deal of capital.
Sale of Surplus Farm Products
Farmers produce crops on their lands by using the three factors of production, viz. land,
labour and capital. They retain a part of produce for self-consumption and sell the surplus in the nearby market. That part of farm produce which is sold in the market is called marketable surplus. Small farmers have little surplus output. It is the medium and large farmers only who have substantial surplus produce for selling in the market.
Non-farm activities
Out of every 100 workers in the rural areas in India, only 24 are engaged in non-farm activities. There is a variety of non-farm activities in the villages. Dairy, small scale manufacturing, transport, etc., fall under this category.
Physical Features of India
India has all major physical features of the Earth, i.e. mountains, plains, deserts, plateaus and islands.
In India the soil colour varies from place to place as it is formed from different types of rocks.
India has varied physical features whose formation can be explained on the basis of the
'Theory of Plate Tectonics'.
According to the theory of Plate Tectonics the seven major and minor plates that form the Earth's crust keep moving, causing stress and thus leading to folding, faulting and volcanic activity.
Three types of Plate movements
(a) Converging Plates - plates moving in the same direction
(b) Diverging Plates - plates moving in the opposite direction
(c) Transforming Plate movement
The physical features of India can be grouped under the following physiographic divisions :
(i) The Himalayan Mountains. (ii) The Northern Plains (iii) The Peninsular Plateau (iv) The Indian Desert (v) The Coastal Plains (vi) The Islands
The Himalayan Mountains
The Himalayas are young-fold mountains which are the loftiest and one of the most rugged mountain barriers of the world.
The Himalayas are 2400 km long, 400 km to 150 km wide from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh respectively.
(a) The Himalayas have three parallel ranges in the longitudinal extent namely :
Great or Inner Himalayas also called Himadri.
Middle Himalayas or Himachal.
Outer Himalayas or Shivalik.
(b) The Himalayas can be divided into four sections :
Punjab Himalayas - between Indus and Satluj.
Kumaon Himalayas - between Satluj and Kali.
Nepal Himalayas - between Kali and the Tista.
Assam Himalayas (Eastern Himalayas) - Between Tista and the Dibang (Tsangpo).
The Northern Plains
The Northern Plains spread over an area of 7 lakh sq. km, 240 km long and 240 km to 320 km broad.
The rivers that flow to the plains from the mountains are involved in depositional work.
Difference in relief causes the Northern Plain to have four regions.
Bhabar - laying at the foot of Shivalik, a narrow 8 to 16 km wide belt of pebbles.
Terai - lying next to Bhabar, a wet and marshy area with wildlife and forests.
Bangar - Older alluvium plain which rises above the level of the flood plains.
Khadar - Younger alluvium of the flood plains.
The Peninsular Plateau
The Peninsular Plateau is the tableland formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwanaland.
The plateau consists of two broad divisions, namely, the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau.
The eastward extensions of Peninsular Plateau are locally known as Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand. The Chhota Nagpur Plateau marks the further eastward extension drained by the Damodar river.
The Deccan Plateau, a triangular mass, lies to the south of the river Narmada.
The western and eastern edges of the Deccan Plateau are marked by the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats respectively.
The Western Ghats are higher than the Eastern Ghats.
A distinct feature of the peninsular plateau is the black soil area known as Deccan Trap.
The Indian Desert
The undulating sandy plain covered with sand dunes towards the western margins of the
Aravalli Hills is the Indian Desert.
Cresent shaped dunes called barchans cover large parts of the Indian Desert.
Luni is the only large river in this region.
The Coastal Plains
The narrow coastal strips flank the Peninsular Plateau.
On the west the coastal strips are divided into Konkan (Mumbai-Goa), Kannad Plain and the
Malabar coast from northern to southern part.
On the east the coastal strip is divided into Northern Circars and the Coromandal Coast from northern to southern part.
The Islands
The Lakshadweep Islands group in the Arabian Sea is close to Kerala.
The Lakshadweep Islands were formerly known as Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindive.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are an elongated chain of islands located in the Bay of
Bengal.
The Andamans and Nicobar Islands are an elevated portion of submarine mountains.
Saturday, 26 August 2017
Socialism in Europe and The Russian Revolution
THE AGE OF SOCIAL CHANGE
The French Revolution opened up the possibility of creating a dramatic change in the way in which society was structured. Not everyone in Europe, however, wanted a complete transformation. Some were ‘conservatives’, while others were ‘liberals’ or ‘radicals’.
Liberals : Wanted a nation which tolerated all religions. They argued for an elected parliamentary government, subject to laws interpreted by a well trained judiciary that was independent of rulers and officials. They were not democrats.
Radicals : Wanted a nation in which government was based on the majority of a country’s population. They disliked concentration of property in hands of a few, not the existence of private property.
Conservatives : They resisted change. After the revolution they started accepting change provided it was slow and had links and respected the past.
Industries and Social Change : This was the time of economic and social change. Men, women and children were pushed into factories for low wages, Liberals and radicals who were factory owners felt that workers’ efforts must be encouraged.
Socialism in Europe : Socialists were against private property. They had different visions of the future. Some believed in cooperatives, some demanded that governments must encourage co- operatives.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels added that industrial society was capitalist. Marx believed that a socialist society would free the workers from capitalism. This would be a communist society. Socialism Given Support : Workers in Germany and England began forming associations to fight for better living conditions. They set up funds for members in distress, reduction of working hours and right to vote.
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
In 1914, Nicholas II ruled the Russian empire.
Economy and Society : Most of the Russian population were agriculturalist. Industries were being set up which was mostly private property of industrialists. Workers were divided into groups but they did unite to strike work when they were dissatisfied. Peasants had no respect for nobility, very unlike the French peasant. Russian peasants were the only peasant community which pooled their land and their commune divided it.
Socialism in Russia : All political parties were illegal in Russia before 1914.
The Russian Socialist Democratic Labour Party was formed in 1900. It struggled to give peasants their rights over land that belonged to nobles. As land was divided among peasants periodically and it was felt that peasants and not workers would be the main source of the revolution. But Lenin did not agree with this as he felt that peasants were not one social group. The party was divided into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.
The 1905 Revolution : Russia was an autocracy. The Tsar was not subject to the parliament. Liberals wanted to end this state of affairs. They worked towards demanding a constitution during the Revolution of 1905.
Bloody Sunday : Prices of essential goods rose so quickly by 1904 that the real wages declined by 20%. During this time, four members of the Putilov Iron Works were dismissed. Action was called for. Over 110,000 workers in St. Petersburg went on strike demanding a reduction in working hours and increase in wages. This procession was attacked by the police and Cossacks. Over 100 workers were killed. Strikes took place as a reaction. People demanded a constituent assembly.
The Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma. The Tsar dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and announced the election of a second Duma.
The First World War and the Russian Empire : In Russia, the war was initially very popular but later the support grew thin. Anti-German sentiments ran high. Russian armies lost badly in Germany and Austria. There were 7 million casualties and 3 million refugees in Russia.
The war also affected the industry. There was labour shortage, railway lines were shut down and small workshops were closed down. There was shortage of grain and hence of bread.
THE FEBRUARY REVOLUTION IN PETROGRAD
Events
(a) In the winter of 1917, Petrograd was grim. There was food shortage in the workers’ quarters.
(b) 22 February : a lockout took place at a factory. Workers of 50 other factories joined in sympathy. Women also led and participated in the strikes. This came to be called the
International Women’s Day.
(c) The government imposed a curfew as the quarters of the fashionable area and official buildings were surrounded by workers.
(d) On the 24th and 25th, the government called out the cavalry and police to keep an eye on them.
(e) On 25th February, the government suspended the Duma and politicians spoke against this measure. The people were out with force once again.
(f) On 27th, the police headquarters were ransacked.
(g) Cavalry was called out again.
(h) An officer was shot at the barracks of a regiment and other regiments mutinied, voting to join the striking workers gathered to form a soviet or council. This was the Petrograd Soviet.
(i) A delegation went to meet the Tsar, military commanders advised him to abdicate.
(j) The Tsar abdicated on 2nd March.
(k) A Provincial Government was formed by the Soviet and Duma leaders to run the country. The people involved were the parliamentarians, workers, women workers, soldiers and military commanders.
Effects
(a) Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed.
(b) Soviets were set up everywhere.
(c) In individual areas factory committees were formed which began questioning the way industrialists ran their factories.
(a) Soldiers' committees were formed in the army.
(b) The provisional government saw its power declining and Bolshevik influence grow. It decided to take stern measures against the spreading discontent.
(c) It resisted attempts by workers to run factories and arrested leaders.
(d) Peasants and the socialist revolutionary leaders pressed for a redistribution of land. Land committees were formed and peasants seized land between July and September 1917.
OCTOBER REVOLUTION
16th October 1917 - Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. A Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviet to organise seizure.
Uprising began on 24th October. Prime Minister Kerenskii left the city to summon troops.
Military men loyal to the government seized the buildings of two Bolshevik newspapers. Pro- government troops were sent to take over telephone and telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace.
In response Military Revolutionary Committee ordered to seize government offices and arrest the ministers.
The 'Aurora' ship shelled the Winter Palace. Other ships took over strategic points.
By night the city had been taken over and ministers had surrendered.
All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd approved the Bolshevik action.
Heavy fighting in Moscow - by December, the Bolsheviks controlled the Moscow - Petrograd area.
The people involved were Lenin, the Bolsheviks, troops (pro-government).
Effects
(a) Most industry and banks were nationalised in November 1917.
(b) Land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.
(c) Use of old titles was banned.
(d) New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.
(e) Russia became a one party state.
(f) Trade unions were kept under party control.
(g) A process of centralised planning was introduced. This led to economic growth.
(h) Industrial production increased.
(i) An extended schooling system developed.
(j) Collectivisation of farms started.
The Civil War - When the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution, the Russian army began to break up. Non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals and supporters of autocracy condemned the Bolshevik uprising. They were supported by French, American, British and Japanese troops. All these fought a war with the Bolsheviks.
Making a Socialist Society - The Bolsheviks kept industries and banks nationalised during the civil war. A process of centralised planning was introduced. Rapid construction and industrialisation started. An extended schooling system developed.
Stalin and Collective Farming - Stalin believed that rich peasants and traders stocked supplies to create shortage of grains. Hence, collectivisation was the need of the hour. This system would also help to modernise farms. Those farmers who resisted collectivisation were punished, deported or exiled.
GLOBAL INFLUENCE
By the 1950s, it was recognised in the country and outside that everything was not in keeping with the ideals of the Russian revolution. Though its industries and agriculture had developed and the poor were being fed, the essential freedom to its citizens was being denied. However, it was recognised that social ideals still enjoyed respect among the Russians. But in each country the ideas of socialism were rethought in a variety of different ways.
Pastoralism
NOMADISM AS A WAY OF LIFE
The Mountain Nomads
The Gujjar Bakarwals
of Jammu and Kashmir — They are pastoral nomads who move
in
the high mountains are covered with
snow these Gujjars move down to the low hills of
the
Sivalik range. On the onset of summer,
when the snow melts and the mountains become lush and
green, these pastoralists move back to the mountains.
The Gaddi
Shepherds of Himachal
Pradesh have a similar cycle
of movement. They also
spend the winter on the low Sivalik
hills and the summers in Lahul and Spiti.
The Gujjar
cattle herders of Kumaon and Garhwal spend their summers in the ‘bugyals’
and
their winters in the ‘bhabar’.
The Bhotias, Sherpas and Kinnauri follow the cyclic movement
which helps them to adjust to
seasonal changes and make best use of pastures.
On
the plateaus, plains
and deserts —
The Dhangars of Maharashtra : The Dhangars stay in the central plateau of Maharashtra
during the monsoon. This is a semi-arid region.
By October they begin their movement
towards
Konkan. Here their cattle help to manure the fields and hence they are
welcomed by the Konkani
peasant.
As soon as the monsoon sets in, they retreat back to the semi-arid
land of Maharashtra.
The Gollas
who herd cattle and the Kurumas and
Kurubas who reared sheep and goat are
from
Karnataka and Andhra. They live near the woods and in the dry periods
they move to the
coastal tracts.
The Banjaras of Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Maharashtra move to
different
places in search of good pastures.
The Raikas of Rajasthan combine cultivation with pastoralism.
When their grazing grounds
become dry they move to new and greener
pastures.
Pastoral life was sustained by
(a) their sense of judgement
to know how long one must stay in an area
(b) to know where they could find food and water
(c) to assess and calculate
the timings of their movement
(d) their ability to set up a relationship with the farmers
so that the herds could graze on the
harvested fields.
CHANGES IN PASTORAL LIFE DUE TO COLONIAL
RULE
Under colonial rule the life of the pastoralists changed completely. Their grazing grounds
became less,
their movements were regulated, the revenues they had to pay
increased, their trades and crafts and
agricultural produce declined
How
All grazing lands became cultivated farms
Forests Act restricted movements of pastoralists in the forests
(a) Some customary rights were granted to them
(b) Forests were marked as protected and reserved
British officials were suspicious of these pastoral groups
(a) The Criminal Tribes Acts was passed in 1871
Taxes were imposed on cattle which went up rapidly
Effects
Natural restoration of pastoral growth stopped
Cattle died due to scarcity of fodder
Serious shortage of pastures
Intensive overgrazzing
Quality of pastures declined
PASTORALISM
IN AFRICA
The Maasai — Changes
in their way of life
The Maasai cattle herders
live primarily in East Africa.
Rules, laws and regulations have changed
their way of life. There are many problems which they have faced, the most prominent being continuous loss of their grazing grounds.
This has many reasons :
(a) scramble for territorial possessions in Africa.
(b) dividing the region into different colonies.
(c) best grazing
grounds being taken
over by the white settlements.
(d) grazing grounds being converted to cultivated land and national
parks and game reserves.
The Kaokoland herders have faced
a similar fate.
Confined to special reserves — Traditionally, pastoralists moved to different pastures
but with the restrictions imposed on them these pastoralists were confined to special reserves. They could not move without
special permits. They were not allowed to enter the markets in white areas. Some tribes were affected by the Criminal Tribes Act. Even their trade activities were adversely
affected.
Clothing - A Social History
HISTORY
Before the democratic revolutions, most people dressed
according to codes that were specified
by their religion. Clothing styles were regulated by class, gender or status in
the social hierarchy. Sumptuary Laws :
Before the French Revolution people in France followed these laws. These laws restricted social behaviour of
the lower strata of the society and imposed restrictions upon their
clothing, food and
entertainment. The French
Revolution brought an end to
these restrictions. Political symbols became part of dress. Clothing
became simple which signified equality. Now the way a person dressed depended
on the differences in earning rather than
sumptuary laws.
Styles of Clothing : Men
and women dressed
differently. Men were supposed to be strong, independent, aggressive while women were supposed to be weak, dependent and docile.
Their clothes were designed
accordingly. The women wore dresses which
accentuated a slim waist.
They had to wear a corset to show a small waist. Though it hurt, this pain and suffering was
accepted as normal for a woman.
Change in Ideas : 19th century brought about many changes. Women pressed for dress reform.
The sufferage movement also developed during this time. There was agitation against
women’s clothes in Europe as well in America. Doctors explained the ill effects of tight clothes
which affected the spine and long flowing gowns which were unhygienic.
It was argued by these movements that
if women wore loose and comfortable clothes, they could start working and
become independent.
New Materials : Before the 17th century
clothes for British
women were made of flax,
wool, linen which were expensive and difficult
to maintain. During the 17th century, with the onset of the Industrial Revolution cloth and clothes
saw a change. The attractive, cheap ‘chintzes’ from
India increased the volume of European women’s wardrobes. Artificial fibres used in cloth made
dresses even easier to maintain. Now with great demand for comfortable dresses,
styles changed considerably.
The World Wars : The two world wars also brought about great changes in women’s clothing.
Styles reflected seriousness and professionalism. Skirts became shorter
and plainer. Women who worked in factories wore uniforms. Trousers became
an accepted and vital part of women’s
dress.
Sports and Games : The school curriculum also emphasised and included games and gymnastics as part of curriculum. This also changed
the way women dressed.
Colonial India : During this time India saw a great change in dress.
Many men began to incorporate western
style clothing in their dress.
Many felt that western
influence would lead to loss of traditional cultural identity.
Many wore western clothes
without giving up Indian ones.
Caste and Dress : Though India had no formal sumptuary laws it had its own strict food, dress
and behaviour codes. It was the caste system that defined how or what the Hindus should wear, eat and behave. If
anyone deviated from the norms, they were severely punished. Even the
government issued orders in some cases ordering low caste Hindus to observe a
strict code of conduct.
British Reactions
to Indian Way of Dressing
: As certain
items of clothing
signify specific things which
could be contrary, this often leads
to misunderstanding and conflict. An example
was a turban and a hat.
The two headgears signified different things.
This difference created
misunderstandings as the hat had to be removed before superiors while the
turban had to be worn consciously. The same was the case with shoes.
The Indian Dress : Indians wanted to create a dress which
could express the unity of the nation. But this did not fully
succeed.
The Swadeshi and Khadi : British political control of India
had two important effects — peasants grew cash crops and the British goods flooded the Indian markets, especially cotton. A
lot of weavers and spinners were left without any work. Murshidabad,
Machilipatnam and Surat which were important textile centres declined
as demand decreased.
Partition of Bengal, Swadeshi
and Khadi : In 1905, Lord Curzon decided to partition Bengal on
the pretext of better management. The Swadeshi movement was a reaction to the partition.
People boycotted British goods and started patronising things made in India.
Many Indian goods were patronised especially khadi. Cloth became a symbolic
weapon against British
rule.
Khadi : Gandhiji made khadi a forceful weapon against the British. Mahatma
Gandhi even experimented with various forms of clothing
starting from the western form of dress to wearing it with a turban. He decided, by
the beginning of the 20th century, to
wear a lungi and kurta (in
Durban). A few years later he adorned
himself as a Kathiawadi peasant.
The dhoti was
adopted by him in 1921. But not all could wear khadi.
Thus we can say
that changes in clothing reflect the changes within the social, political and
economic spheres of a society.
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