Making of a Global World

Globalisation is an economic system associated with the free movement of capital goods, technology, ideas and people across the globe. It developed mainly through trade, migration of those who were seeking better life and movement of capital.
Travelers,  traders,  priests  and  pilgrims  traveled  vast  distances  in  search  of  knowledge, opportunity, spiritual fulfillment or to escape persecution. They carried articles, values, skills and even diseases.
The Silk Route is a pre-modern trade route over land and sea which affected cultures of China, Central Asia and the West. Besides trade, art, literature and philosophical ideas were also exchanged.
Food traveled : Potatoes from North & South America and the Caribbean islands traveled to the rest of the world, when it was accidentally discovered by Christopher Columbus.
Precious metals from mines of Peru and Mexico enhanced European trade with Asia. The
Europeans conquered and carried diseases like "small pox," to South America.
Europe  leaped  ahead  of  other  continents  due  to  Renaissance,  Industrial  Revolution, capitalism, ideas of the French and American Revolutions.
Colonies were established by Europeans all over the world.

SECTION B - THE 19TH CENTURY (1815-1914) ECONOMY
The 19th century saw international economic exchange by 3 types of movements or flows - Trade flow, Larbour flow and Capital flow.
 Industrial Revolution changed the consumption and production pattern of the people.
Demand for food increased, England imposed Corn Laws but tried to withdraw them under pressure from urban dwellers and industrialists. It led to import of cheap agricultural products into England.
Countries  like  Eastern  Europe,  Russia,  America  and  Australia  increased  their  food productivity to meet British needs, and became industrialised.
Global Migration took place and nearly 50 million people migrated from Europe to America and Australia in the 19th century due to poverty, hunger and to escape religious persecution.
Technology reached its highest peak in Europe with the invention of Railways, Steamships, Telegraph and Shipbuilding. Meat trade at this time is a fine example of interdependence of technology and economy.
Late 19th century saw colonisation at huge scale by Britain, France and followed by Spain, Portugal, Germany and Belgium. The USA also became a colonial power by the 1890s. Most regions of Asia and Africa became colonies of the West.

Rinderpest or the Cattle Plague arrived in Africa from Europe. It destroyed nearly 90% of the livestock and destroyed the livelihood of the Natives. Mine owners and colonial powers benefited by it and Africa ceased to be a free continent.
 A new system of slavery - Indentured labour immigration from India started to the Caribbean
Islands, Mauritius, Fiji, Ceylon and Malaya.
Though cheated and treated badly, they adapted to their new environment and cultural fusion took place as a result of this process of migration.
lndian  entrepreneurs,    some  bankers  like  Nattukottai  and  Chettiars  financed  export  of agriculture to Central and South-East Asia. They even followed the Europeans to Africa.
Industrial Revolution in England changed the balance of trade between England and India.
Indian handicraft and agriculture were destroyed and Britain enjoyed a trade surplus with
India. Their exports increased and imports decreased.

SECTION C - THE INTER-WAR ECONOMY
The First World War (1914-1918) transformed the socio-economic and political structure of the world.
The war killed 9 million and injured 20 million people by using new, modern weapons of mass destruction.
Economic  Transformation  took  place  in  the  form  of  shift  in  investment  and  capital distribution. The war encouraged war-related goods.
The USA became international creditor of Europe, Russia became a communist country in 1917.
The League of Nations was formed to end all future wars.
Post-war Recovery. Britain faced a steep war-debt and her position as a world economic power ended. Unemployment increased, grain prices fell due to overproduction. After the war Eastern Europe revived its wheat production, leading to a glut.
l The US recovered from the post-war crisis at a great speed due to the introduction of mass production.
l Henry Ford introduced the assembly line production. His T-model Ford was the world's first mass produced car.
l Mass production lowered the costs and prices of engineered goods. These was a housing and consumer boom in the 1920s, which ultimately led to the Great Depression of 1929.
l Markets crashed in 1929, and led to failure of banks, and the American crisis affected other countries. By 1933, over 4000 banks closed and between 1929-32 about 110,000 companies collapsed.
l India  was  also  affected  by  the  Great  Depression.  Indian  exports  and  imports  declined extensively, prices fell. Bengal jute growers suffered the most. Large scale migration took place from villages to towns and cities.

SECTION D - REBUILDING OF A WORLD ECONOMY : THE POST-WAR ERA
The Second World War (1939-1945) was even more devastating than the First.
About 3% of the world population perished, more civilians than fighting soldiers.
Two countries - USA and the USSR emerged as superpowers in the post-war scenario.
International organisations like the UNO and others were established to maintain peace and stability.
Two lessons were learnt by the economists and the politicians in the post-war system
(i)  to ensure mass consumption in an industrial society by high and stable income.
(ii)  to ensure full employment and government control of flows of goods, capital and labour. l Bretton Woods Agreement (July 1944). To ensure a stable economy a framework was agreed upon at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held at Bretton Woods
in New Hampshire, USA. It established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.
The IMF was to deal with external surpluses and deficits of its member nations.
The World Bank was an International Bank for reconstruction and development and was to finance the post-war reconstruction.
Bretton Woods  System  was  based  on  a  fixed  exchange  rate.  National  currencies  were pegged  to  the American  dollar  at  a  fixed  rate. The western powers, the USA specially, controlled the decision-making provisions such as the right to veto. It linked national currencies and the monetary system.
The Bretton Woods System benefitted the Western industrial nations and Japan and brought immense trade and income to them.
Post-war  era  saw  rapid  decolonisation  and  many  countries  in Asia  and Africa  became independent nations, supported by UNO and NAM.
Group of 77 or G-77 was organised by developing countries to demand a new international economic order (NIEO) which would give these countries real control over their national resources, raw materials, manufactured goods in their markets.
MNCs or multinational companies were established in the 1950s and 1960s and operated in several countries.

Print Culture and The Modern World

The First Printed Books

The earliest print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea. From 594 AD onwards, books were printed in China by rubbing paper against the inked surface of woodblocks. The traditional Chinese ‘Accordion Book’ was folded and stitched at the side because both sides of the thin, porous sheet could not be printed.

For a very long time, the imperial state of China was the major producer of printed material. The Chinese bureaucratic system recruited its personnel through civil services examinations. The imperial state sponsored the large scale printing of textbooks for this examination. The number of candidates for the examinations increased from the sixteenth century, and this increased the volume of print.

By the seventeenth century, the use of print diversified in China because of a blooming urban culture. Print was no longer limited to scholar-officials. Merchants used print in day-to-day life because they collected trade related information. Fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies, anthologies of literary masterpieces and romantic play became the staple for the reading public. Reading acquired the status of a preferred leisure activity. Rich women began to read and many of them began publishing their poetry and plays.

Print in Japan

The Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing technology into Japan around 768 – 770 AD. The Buddhist Diamond Sutra which was printed in 868 AD was the oldest Japanese book. Libraries and bookstores were packed with hand-printed materials of various types. These included books on women, musical instruments, calculations, tea ceremony, flower arrangements, proper etiquette, cooking and famous places.

Print Comes to Europe

Marco Polo was a great explorer from Italy. He returned from China in 1295 and brought the knowledge of woodblock printing alongwith him. Thus, printing began in Italy and travelled to other parts of Europe. Vellum was still the preferred material for printing the luxury editions because printed books were considered as cheap vulgarities. Vellum is a parchment made from the skin of animals.

By the early fifteenth century, woodblocks were widely used in Europe to print various materials. It almost replaced the books made by calligraphy.

Gutenberg and the Printing Press

Gutenberg was the son of a merchant. Since his childhood he had seen wine and olive presses. He also learnt the art of polishing stones, and became a master goldsmith and also became an expert in creating lead moulds. Such moulds were used for making trinkets.

Gutenberg used his knowledge to bring innovation to the print technology. He used the olive press as the model for the printing press and used the moulds for casting the metal types for the letters. Gutenberg perfected the system by 1448. The first book printed by him was the Bible.

Initially, the printed books resembled the written manuscripts in appearance and layout. In the hundred years between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were set up in most parts of Europe. The growth of the print industry was so good that about 20 million books appeared in the European markets in the second half of the fifteenth century. In the sixteenth century, this number went up to about 200 million copies.

The Print Revolution and Its Impact

A New Reading Public

With the print technology, a new reading public emerged. Books became cheaper because of printing. Numerous copies could now be produced with much ease. This helped in catering to an ever growing readership.

Access to books increased for the public. This helped in creating a new culture of reading. Literacy level was very low till the twentieth century in Europe. Printers kept in mind the wider reach of the printed work. Popular ballads and folk tales were published which could be listened by even the illiterates. Literate people read out stories and ballads to those who could not read.

Religious Debates and Fear of Print

Print created an opportunity of a new debate and discussion. People began questioning some established notions of religion. For the orthodox people, it was like a challenge as they feared the disturbance in old order. In fact, the Protestant Revolution in Christianity began because of print culture. The Roman Church felt troubled by new ideas which raised questions about the existing norms of faith. It even started to maintain an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558.

The Reading Mania

The literacy levels improved through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe. By the end of the eighteenth century, literacy rates were as high as 60 to 80 percent in some parts of Europe. The growth in literacy level created a reading mania among people. Booksellers employed pedlars who roamed around villages to sell books. Periodicals, novels, almanac, etc. formed the staple for the reading mania.

Ideas of scientists and philosophers became more accessible to the common people. New ideas could be debated and shared with a wider target audience.

Print Culture and the French Revolution

Many historians are of the view that print culture created the conditions which led to French Revolution. Some of such conditions are as follows:

• Print popularized the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers. These thinkers gave critical commentary on tradition, superstition and despotism. Voltaire and Rousseau were among the prominent Enlightenment thinkers.
• Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. General public began to discuss the values, norms and institutions and tried to re-evaluate the established notions.
• By the 1780s, there was a surge in literature which mocked the royalty and criticized their morality. Print helped in creating an image of the royalty that they indulged in their own pleasure at the expense of the common public.

The Nineteenth Century

There was vast leap in mass literacy in Europe in the nineteenth century. This brought a large numbers of new readers among children, women and workers. Many books were written and printed keeping in mind the sense and sensibilities of children. Many folk tales were rephrased to suit the children. Many women became important as readers as well as writers. The lending libraries which had been in existence from the seventeenth century became the hub of activity for white-collar workers, artisans and lower middle class people.

Further Innovations

Richard M. Hoe of New York perfected the power-driven cylindrical press by the mid-nineteenth century. This could print 8,000 sheets per hour. Offset press was developed in the late nineteenth century. This could print up to six colours at a time. Electrically operated presses came in use from the turn of the twentieth century. This helped in accelerating the printing process. Many other innovations took place during this period. All the innovations had a cumulative effect which improved the appearance of printed texts.

New Strategies to sell books:

• Many periodicals serialized important novels in the nineteenth century.
• In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.
• The dust cover or book jacket is a twentieth century innovation.
• Cheap paperback editions were brought to counter the effect of the Great Depression in the 1930s.

• India and the World of Print

  Print comes to India

  The Portuguese missionaries were the first to bring printing press to Goa in the mid-sixteenth century. The first books were printed in Konkani language. By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in Konkani and Kanara Languages. Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin. They printed the first Malayalam book in 1713,
  From 1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette. It was a weekly magazine. Hickey also published a lot of gossip about the senior officials of the Company. Governor General Warren Hastings persecuted Hickey. Warren Hastings encouraged the publication of officially sanctioned newspapers to protect the image of the colonial government.
  The first Indian newspaper was the weekly Bengal Gazette which was brought out by Gangadhar Bhattacharya.
  Print culture helped in initiating new debate on religious, social and political issues in India. Many existing religious practices were criticized. Rammohun Roy published Sambad Kaumudi from 1821 to criticize the orthodox views in the Hinduism. The Hindu orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika to counter his opinions. In 1822, publication of two Persian newspapers began, viz. Jam – i- Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar. Bombay Samachar; a Gujarati newspaper appeared in the same year.
  In north India, the ulama began to publish cheap lithographic prints which contained Persian and Urdu translations of holy scriptures. They also published religious newspapers and tracts. The Deoband Seminary was founded in 1867. It published thousands upon thousands fatwas about proper conduct in the life of Muslims.
  Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas was printed from Calcutta in 1810. From the 1880s, the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar Press in Bombay published many religious texts in vernaculars.
  Print helped in bringing the religious texts within reach of the common masses. It also helped in shaping the new political debate. It also helped in connecting the people from various parts of India; by carrying news of one part to another.
  

  New forms of Publication

  Initially, people got to read the novels which were written by European writers. But people could not relate to those novels because they were written in the European context. Many writers emerged who began to write in the Indian context. People could correlate with the theme and characters of such novels in a better way. Many other new forms of writing also came into origin; like lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters, etc.
  A new visual culture was taking shape by the end of the nineteenth century. Many printing presses started to produce visual images in large numbers. Works of painters; like Raja Ravi Varma were produced for mass circulation through printing.
  By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers. They commented on various social and political issues.
  

  Women and Print

  Many writers wrote about the lives and feelings of women. Due to this, readership among middle-class women increased substantially. There were many liberal husbands and fathers who stressed on women’s education. While some women got education at home, some others went to schools as well. This was the time, when many women writers also began to express their views through their writings.
  Conservative Hindus and Muslims were still against women’s education. They thought that a girl’s mind would be polluted by education. People wanted their daughters to read religious texts but did not want them to read anything else.
  While Urdu, Tamil, Bengali and Marathi print culture had developed early, Hindi printing began seriously only from the 1870s.
  

  Print and the Poor People

  Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth century Madras towns. These books were sold at crossroads so that poor people could buy them. Public libraries were set up from the early twentieth century which helped in increasing the access to books. Many rich people set up library in order to assert their prestige in their area.

  Print and Censorship
  

  Before 1798, the colonial rulers were not too concerned with censorship. Initially, the control measures were directed against Englishmen in India who were critical of Company misrule.

  After the revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the press changed. The Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878. The Act provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. In case of a seditious report, the newspaper was warned. If the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated.

Democracy and Diversity

Case Study - Mexico Olympics

Two African-American athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, won the gold and bronze medal respectively in the 200 mt. race. For the medal ceremony, both of them wore no shoes and stood in their black socks. They were representing Black poverty, and racial discrimination against them in the USA. They also raised black-gloved clenched fists to symbolise Black Power. The athlete from Australia, Peter Norman, who won the silver medal, wore a human rights badge to declare his support to the two Americans.
The result of their actions- The Olympic Committee took back their medals for making a political statement and thus violating the Olympic spirit.
When they returned to USA, they had to face public criticism.
Peter Norman was also penalised by not being included in the next Olympic.

Origin of Social Differences
(i)  Most of the social differences are not of our own making, they are based on an accident of birth. Our race, our colour, our religion, our gender or country of birth, are not chosen by us.
(ii)  But some social differences are made by us only by choice. For example -
(i) Non-belief in God, or to follow a different religion, (ii) where and what to study, (iii) which profession to follow (iv) also choose the games or cultural activities we want to follow, etc.
Our choices lead to the formation of social groups.
(iii) It is not necessary that all social differences should lead to social divisions. People belonging to different social groups share differences and similarities, which cut across all political boundaries.
Important : If religion creates similarities, it can divide people over the issue of caste or sect (Catholic or Protestant, Brahmin or Scheduled Caste).
Rich and poor persons in the same family differ from each other and lack closeness to each other, for they feel they are different.

Overlapping and Cross-Cutting Differences
Why was there a social division in USA?            
There was a division  between the Whites and Blacks  in USA because the Blacks were  poor, homeless and discriminated against. They  were not given justice and this created social differences and divisions.
The same problem is faced by the Dalits in India.They are poor and landless. The Dalits face injustice and discrimination in at the hands of the upper castes.
The above is an example of one difference overlapping other differences, people of the same religion feel they belong to different communities.
Take another example : In Ireland, a Christian country, the division is because of religion between the Protestants and Catholics.
In Northern Ireland, if you are a Catholic you are bound to be poor and you may have been discriminated against. There have been conflicts between the two.

Cross-Cutting Differences
In Netherlands : Catholics and Protestants both can be either rich or poor, with the result they have never had any trouble. Unlike Ireland, there has never been any trouble in the Netherlands. There reason class and religion cut across each other.
Which kind of division is more dangerous?
 Overlapping social differences. They can create deep social divisions.
Examples : (i) Led to ethnic war in Sri Lanka which has not yet ended. (ii) Led to the Partition of India in 1947.
Cross-cutting social differences are easier to handle and accommodate.
It is important to note here that social divisions of one kind or another exist in every country.
No country, big or small, has a homogeneous society, i.e., a society with similar kind of people and hardly any ethnic differences.
There is another reason - People from one region or country shift to another region or country (both within a country and another country) to seek better economic opportunities. These migrants create social differences and divisions.
RANGE OF OUTCOMES
1.  (a)  Violent Conflict
Example : Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
(b)  Reason : Ethno-religious with political fallout.
Example  :  Republic  predominantly  Catholic.  Northern  Ireland  53%  Protestant,  44% Catholics. The Republic wanted them to unite.
(c)  Parties : The Nationalists represented the Republic, the Unionists represented Northern
Ireland and wanted to remain within U.K.
Example  :  Violent  war  where  hundreds  were  killed.  Republic  of  Ireland  fought  with
Northern Ireland as well as with U.K.
Final Outcome : A peace treaty signed in 1998 which ended the armed struggle.
2.   Yugoslavia also faced ethno-religious differences. They led to political competition. Civil war followed and Yugoslavia has been broken up now into seven independent nations, namely; Bosnia, Macedonia Croatia, Herzegovina, Kosovo, Serbia and Montenegro.
Conclusion : Social divisions should not be allowed to influence the politics of a country. We have seen the result in our own country - Partition into India and Pakistan.
In a democracy, how do social divisions affect the people?
(i)  Social divisions will be reflected in politics (Example : India)
(ii)  Political parties will refer to these divisions.
(iii)  Political parties would try to redress the grievances of minorities.
(iv)  Voting is affected in most countries. People from one community prefer some parties more than the others.
(v)  In some countries, there are parties that focus on one community only.
Factors that decide the outcomes of social divisions
(i) How  do  people  see  their identities? If people think they are Indians first, and then they are Bengali, Punjabi etc. or a religious or language group, then there will be no conflict. Trouble in Ireland was because they thought that first they were Catholics or Protestants and then Irish.
In Belgium, it was the opposite. First Belgians, then Dutch or French-speaking.
(ii) Peace remains if one community  does  not  try to dominate the others. For example, in Sri Lanka, the demands of "only Sinhala" was at the cost of Tamil-speaking community.  In Yugoslavia, each ethnic group made demands for itself only, with the result that the country was divided into six nations.
(iii)  Depends on how the government reacts to the demands. If the rulers are willing to share power (as in Belgium) there is no threat to the unity of the country. But if suppressed in the name of   national unity (as in Sri Lanka), it leads to violence.

Power Sharing

Belgium
Ethnic Composition   Dutch speaking 59 %, in Flemish region
                                 French speaking 40 % in Wallonia region
                                 1 % German speaking
                                 in Brussels - 80 % French speaking, 20 % Dutch speaking
Problems                   French relatively rich & powerful
                                 Dutch - got the benefit of economic development, education much later
                                 Dutch speaking people are a majority in the country, but minority in the capital
Steps taken               Amended Constitution four times between 1970 and 1993
                                 Number of Dutch & French speaking ministers shall be equal in the Central Govt.
                                 State Governments given power, are not subordinate to the Central Govt.
                                 Brussels has a separate Govt., have equal representation of both Dutch & French
                                 Community Govt. has the power regarding cultural, educational and language related                                    issues
Outcomes                 Helped to avoid Civic strife, a possible division of the country, Brussels chosen as                                         headquarter of European Union

Sri Lanka
Ethnic Composition  Sinhala speakers 74 %
                                Tamil speakers 18 % (Sri Lankan Tamils 13%, rest Indian Tamils
                                Sinhala speaking are Buddhist
                                Tamil speaking are Hindu/Muslim
                                7 % are Christians (Sinhala as well as Tamil)
Problems                  Majoritarian Government
                                in 1956 an Act was passed to declare Sinhala as the official language
                                Govt. favoured Sinhala applicants for University positions and Govt. jobs
                                Buddhism, the national religion
Steps taken              Tamils launched parties and struggles for the recognition of Tamil as an official language,                                 for regional autonomy and equality of opportunity in securing education and jobs
                                Political organisations formed demanding an independent Tamil Eelam
                                All these demands rejected by Sri Lankan Govt.
Outcome                  Distrust led to Civil war, has caused a terrible setback to the social, cultural and                                             economic life of the country

Need of Power Sharing

• Power sharing helps in reducing the conflict between various social groups. Hence, power sharing is necessary for maintaining social harmony and peace.
• Power sharing helps in avoiding the tyranny of majority. The tyranny of majority not only destroys the minority social groups but also the majority social group.
• People’s voice forms the basis of a democratic government. Hence, power sharing is essential to respect the spirit of democracy.
• The avoiding conflict in society and preventing majority tyranny are considered as prudential reasons for power sharing. Maintaining the spirit of democracy is considered as the moral reason for power sharing.

Forms of Power Sharing:

Power Sharing in Different Organs of Government:

Power is shared among different organs of government, such as the legislature, executive and judiciary. This type of distribution can be called the horizontal distribution of power. This type of power sharing allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different powers.

Such a separation ensures that unlimited power is not vested in any organ of the government. This ensures a balance of power among various institutions. The executive enjoys official power but is answerable to the legislature. The legislature has the right to make or amend laws but it is answerable to the people. The judiciary is independent and ensures that the law of the land is obeyed by legislature and executive.

Power Sharing at Different Levels:

Power can be shared among governments at different levels. Usually a central government is responsible for the entire nation and state governments are responsible for different units of the federation. There is clear cut demarcation on subjects which come under the union government and those which come under the state government. However, there are some subjects which come under the concurrent list, i.e. both state and central governments exercise power on such subjects.Power Sharing Among Social Groups:

Power may also be shared among different social groups. In a diverse country; like India; there are various social, linguistic and caste groups and power is shared among each group. For example; people from the minority communities, OBCs, and SC & ST are given reservation so that there could be adequate representation for them in the government machinery.

Power Sharing Among Various Pressure Groups:

Power sharing among various political parties is more apparent for most of the people. Usually the largest political party or the largest political coalition becomes the ruling party. The other parties form the opposition. While opposition is not in power, it is responsible for seeing to it that the ruling party functions as per the wishes of the people. Heads of various committees comes from various political parties; which is another way of sharing power among different political parties.

Pressure groups also get their share in power. For example; the trade unions, ASSOCHAM, students’ union, etc. get some power by certain mechanisms. Representatives of these associations become part of many decision making bodies and thus enjoy their share of power.

What is Democracy, Why Democracy

"Democracy is a form of Govt. in which the rulers are elected by the people."
Every country which holds election cannot be termed as democracy. There are some other factors also. Many country's have elections but cannot be termed as Democracy.

Features of Democracy -
(i) "Major decisions by elected leaders"
General Parvej Musharraf led a Military Coup in Oct. 1999, he declared himself the 'Chief Executive' of the country. He became President in 2002, he held a referendum which granted his a five year extension. But this referendum was based on malpractices and fraud. He issued an order according to which President can dismiss the National or Provincial Assemblies. Work of the civilian cabinet was to be supervised by a National Security dominated by Military officials.
"In a democracy the final decision making power must rest with those elected by the people."
(ii) "Free and Fair Electoral competition."
China - National People's Congress appoints President of China, has 3000 members but all belong to Chinese Communist Party or her allies. The Govt. is always formed by the Communist Party.
Mexico - Since 1930 to 2000 every election is won by PRI, they use dirty tricks to win elections
(a) All govt. officials to be a part of PRI only.
(b) Teachers force parents to vote for PRI
(c) Media favours PRI only
(d) Last moment changes in Election Booths
(e) Govt. spent money on the campaigning of PRI candidates.
"A democracy must be based on a free and fair election where those currently in power have a fair chance of losing."
(iii) "One Person, One Vote and One Value."
(a) In Saudi Arabia women's don't have the Right to Vote
(b) In Estonia Russian Minority finds it difficult to get the Right to Vote.
(c) In Fiji, vote of an indigenous Fijian has more value than that of an Indian Fijian.
"In a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote and each have one value."
(iv) "Rule of Law and Respect for Rights."
Zimbabwe since its independence, has been ruled by ZANU -PF, regular elections are held in this country, even then this country cannot be termed as Democracy, because -
(a) Has amended Constitution many times to increase the powers of the President.
(b) People don't have the Right of Speech and Expression
(c) Censorship of Media
(d) Govt. ignores court judgement which goes against it.
Govt. violates basic rights of the Citizens. For e.g. Right of Equality, Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression, Right to form Associations, Right to Constitutional Remedies are not provided to citizens.
"Every major decisions has to go through a series of consultation. Rights of minorities should be protected."

Summery -
A Democracy must have the following features -
(a) Representatives elected by the people take all the decisions.
(b) Elections offer a choice and fair opportunity to the people to change the current rulers.
(c) Opportunity is available to all the people on an equal basis.
(d) Leads to a Govt. limited by basic rules of the Constitution and Citizens Rights.

Arguments against Democracy
(a) Leaders keep changing, it leads to instability.
(b) All about political competition and power play, no scope for morality.
(c) So many people have to be consulted that it leads to delays.
(d) Leaders do not know the best interest of the people, it leads to bad decisions
(e) Leads to corruption
(f) Many people don't know what is good for them, they should not decide anything.

Arguments in favour of Democracy
(a) More accountable form of Government.
(b) Improves the quality of decision making
(c) Provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts
(d) Enhances the dignity of citizens
(e) It allows us the correct its own mistakes.

Nazism and the Rise of Hitler

BIRTH OF THE WEIMER REPUBLIC
Germany fought the First World War (1914-1918) along with the Austrian empire and against the
Allies (England, France and Russia).
Germany initially made gains by occupying France and Belgium.  However, the Allies won defeating Germany and the Central Powers in 1918.
A National Assembly met at Weimer and established a democratic constitution with a federal structure. The republic, however, was not received well by its own people largely because of the terms it was forced to accept after Germany's defeat at the end of the First World War. Many Germans held the new Weimer Republic responsible for not only the defeat in the war but the disgrace at Versailles.
The Effects of the War - The war  had a  devastating impact on the entire continent both psychologically and financially. From being a creditor, Europe became a debtor. The supporters of the Weimer Republic were criticised and became easy targets of attack in the conservative nationalist circles. Soldiers came to be placed above civilians. Aggressive war propaganda and national honour became important.
Political Radicalism and Economic Crisis : The birth of the Weimer Republic coincided with the uprising of the Spartacist League on the pattern of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. The Spartacists founded the Communist Party of Germany.
Political radicalisation was heightened by the economic crisis of 1923. As Germany refused to pay the war reparations, France occupied its leading industrial area, Ruhr. Germany retaliated with printing paper currency recklessly. The value of the mark collapsed. Prices of goods soared. There was hyperinflation.
The Years of Depression
1924-1928 saw some stability, yet it was built on sand. Germany was totally dependent on short- term loans, largely from the USA. This support was withdrawn with the crash in 1929 of the Wall Street Exchange. German economy was hit badly. The middle class and working population was filled with the fear of proletarianisation.
The Weimer Republic had some inherent defects :
1.  Proportional Representation
2.  Article 48 - which gave the President the powers to impose emergency, suspend civil rights and rule by decree.
HITLER'S RISE TO POWER
Hitler was born in Austria in 1889. He earned many medals for bravery in the First World War. The German defeat horrified him. The Treaty of Versailles made him furious. He joined the German Workers Party and renamed it National Socialist German Workers' Party. This later came to be known as the Nazi Party.
Nazism became a mass movement only during the Great Depression. The Nazi propaganda stirred hopes of a better future. Hitler was a powerful and effective speaker. He promised the people a strong nation where all would get employment.
The  Destruction of  Democracy -  Hitler  achieved the highest  position  in  the cabinet  of ministries on 30 January 1933. Hitler now set out to dismantle the structures of democratic rule. The Fire Decree of 28 February 1933 suspended civic rights like freedom of speech, press and assembly. Communists were hurriedly packed off to new established concentration camps. All political parties were banned. Special surveillance and security forces were created to control the people and rule with impunity.
Reconstruction : Economist Hjalmar Schacht was given the responsibility of economic recovery. This was to be done through a state funded work creation programme.
Hitler  pulled out  of  the League of  Nations in 1933,  reoccupied the  Rhineland in  1936 and integrated Austria and Germany in 1938 under the slogan : One people, One empire, One leader. He then took Sudentenland from Czechoslovakia. Hitler had the unspoken support of England. Hitler did not stop here. He chose war as a way out of the Economic Crisis.
Resources were to be accumulated through expansion of territory. In September 1940 Germany invaded Poland. This started a war with France and England. USA resisted involvement in the war. But when Japan extended its support to Hitler and bombarded Pearl Harbour, the USA entered the war. The war ended in 1945 with Hitler's defeat and the US bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.
THE NAZI WORLD VIEW
According to Nazi ideology there was no equality between people, but only racial hierarchy. The Nazis quickly began to implement their dream of creating an exclusive racial community of pure Germans by physically eliminating all those who were considered undesirable. They wanted a society of pure and healthy Nordic Aryans. Jews, gypsies, blacks, Russian, Poles, even certain Germans and abnormals were considered undesirable.
The other aspect of Hitler's ideology related to the geopolitical concept of Lebensraum, or living space.
Jews were the worst sufferers in Nazi Germany. Hitler believed in pseudoscientific theories of race which said that conversion was no solution to the Jewish problem. It had to be solved through their total elimination.
From 1933-1938 - the Nazis terrorised, pauperised and segregated the Jews, compelling them to leave the country.
The next phase, 1939-1945, aimed at concentrating them in certain areas and then killing them in gas chambers in Poland.
The Racial Utopia
Genocide and war became two sides of the same coin. Occupied Poland was divided. Poles were forced to leave their homes and properties behind to be occupied by ethnic Germans brought in from occupied Europe.
YOUTH IN NAZI GERMANY
Hitler felt that a strong Nazi society could be established by teaching Nazi ideology to children. All schools were given German teachers. Children were divided into two groups - desirable and undesirable. Textbooks were rewritten, functions of sports in schools was to nurture the spirit of violence and aggression. Ten-year-olds had to enter  Jungvolk. At  14,  all boys  joined 'Hitler Youth', they joined the Labour Service at 18.
The Nazi Cult of Motherhood - Women were told to be good mothers and rear pure blooded
Aryan children. They were encouraged to produce many children.
The Art of Propaganda - The Nazi regime used language and media with care and often to great effect. They used films, pictures, radio, posters, etc. to spread hatred for Jews.
Crimes against Humanity - People saw the world through Nazi eyes and spoke the Nazi language. At times even the Jews began to believe in the Nazi stereotypes about them. Knowledge about the Holocaust -It was only after the war ended that people came to know about what had happened. The Jews wanted the world to know about the atrocities and sufferings they had endured during the Nazi killing operations. They just wanted to live, even if it was for a few hours, to tell the world about the Holocaust.

Agriculture

 Agriculture means land cultivation. It also includes animal husbandry and fishing.

 At present in different parts of India, the types of farming being carried out are primitive subsistence farming, intensive subsistence farming and commercial farming.

 Primitive subsistence farming is characterised by small and scattered landholdings and use of primitive tools. The farmers do not use fertilisers and high-yielding varieties of seeds.

 Intensive subsistence farming is carried out in the areas with high population pressure on land. Irrigation, fertilisers and pesticides are used to get maximum output from limited land. Various machines are introduced.

 Commercial farming is characterised by use of higher doses of modern inputs in order to obtain higher productivity.

 Plantation farming, a form of commercial farming, involves growing of a single crop on a large area.

 In India, there are three crop seasons —

 Kharif, Rabi, Zaid.

l Kharif — It starts with the onset of the monsoon and continues till the beginning of winter (June-July to September-October). The kharif crops include rice, maize, millet, cotton, jute, groundnut, moong, urad, etc.

l Rabi — It starts with the beginning of winter and continues till the beginning of summer (October-December  to April-June).  The  rabi  crops  include  wheat,  barley,  gram  and oilseeds.

l Zaid — This is a short crop season in between the rabi and the kharif season. Crops like watermelons, muskmelons, cucumber, some vegetables and fodder crops are the major crops.

 India produces a wide variety of crops, namely cereals, pulses and oilseeds, fibre crops, beverage crops, cash crops.

 Cereals — It covers about three-fourth of the total cropped area of the country. The principal cereals grown in India are — rice, wheat, millets, maize, pulses.

 Rice — It requires a temperature between 20° to 27°C and a rainfall above 100 cm.

 Wheat — It requires a temperature between 16° to 22°C and a rainfall between 50-75 cm.

 Millets — Jowar, Bajra, Ragi.

 Fibre crops — Cotton and jute are the two important fibre crops grown in India.

 Beverage crops — Tea and coffee are important beverage crops.

 Cash crops — The major cash crops are sugarcane, rubber, tobacco, spices and fruits and vegetables.

 Persian wheel has been replaced by water pump, the plough by tiller and harrow drawn by tractor, the bullock cart by truck.

Flooding of fields is being replaced by drip irrigation. Chemical fertilisers took the place of farm manure.

Chemical fertilisers are being replaced by bio-fertilisers.

The  technological  advancements  gave  birth  to  Green  Revolution, White  Revolution  or

Operation Flood.

The Government abolished the Zamindari system.

Radio and television inform the farmers about the new improved techniques of farming.

Rural banks, cooperative societies and Kisan Credit Card ensure easy availability of funds to farmers.

Agriculture is the backbone of the Indian economy.

Considering the importance of agriculture the Government of India took steps to modernise agriculture. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) was established.

Indian farmers are facing a big challenge from international competition but our government is going ahead with reduction in the public investment in agriculture sector, particularly in irrigation power, rural roads, market and mechanisation.

The foodgrain production has increased from 51 million tonnes in 1950-51 to 209.8 million tonnes in 1999-2000.

A food stock of 44.7 million tonnes had been accumulated in 2001.

In  spite  of  the  surplus  foodgrains,  many  Indians  do  not  have  enough  money  to  feed themselves.

There  has  been  a  gradual  shift  from  cultivation  of  food  crops  to  cultivation  of  fruits, vegetables, oilseeds and crops which also act as industrial raw material.

In 2000-01, India produced only 196.8 million tonnes of foodgrain.

The use of more and more land for construction of factories, warehouses and shelters has reduced the land under cultivation and new fertile land for farming is no longer available. Fertilisers, pesticides and insecticides which once showed a dramatic result are now being held responsible for degrading soils.

Periodic scarcity of water has led to reduction in area under irrigation. Inefficient water management has led to waterlogging and salinity.

Biotechnology can be used to modify different crops genetically to increase the yield per hectare.

Biotechnology is environmentally safe and sustainable.

Globalisation is based on the philosophy of free and open international trade.

Globalisation ensures that good quality goods at competitive prices alone will survive in the market.

India has an abundance of human labour. Every effort will have to be made to raise their efficiency and equip them with new and advanced tools, implements and machines to enable them to compete with their counterparts in other parts of the world.

India will have to develop techniques which the developed countries have been using.

An unrestricted united national market for farm products within the country must be set up.

This  will  require  the  development  of  roads,  electricity,  irrigation  and  credit  facilities  to farmers and traders.

NTSE Stage II not before 24.08.2014

In an order issued by Panjab and Haryana High Court, NTSE Stage I exam in Haryana is to be conducted again on 24.08.2014
till then NTSE Stage II exam can not be conducted.
http://phhc.gov.in:8080/pdf/fo/CWP_4594_2014_09_07_2014_FINAL_ORDER.pdf

NTSE Stage II Sample Paper for Social Science

NTSE Stage II (Social Science) has 40 Questions covering syllabus of Class IX and X NCERT Syllabus. In History class IX and X both has optional chapters, but a serious NTSE aspirant should not leave any chapter, must prepare all. In Stage II more emphasis would be on questions from class X in comparison to class IX.
http://www.scribd.com/doc/233180726/Sample-Paper-for-NTSE-Stage-II-Social-Science

Forest and Wildlife Resources

Biodiversity: The variety of flora and fauna in a given geographical area is called biodiversity of that area.

Flora and Fauna in India

India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity, and has nearly 8 per cent of the total number of species in the world (estimated to be 1.6 million).

List of Critically Endangered Species:

Cheetah, pink-headed Duck, Mountain Quail, Forest Spotted Owl, madhucha insignis (wild mahua), hubbardia heptaneuron (a grass species)

Number of Endangered Species:

79 species of mammals, 44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and 3 of amphibians, 1,500 plant species are considered endangered.

Classification Based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN):

Normal Species: If the population level of species is within normal range for their survival, it is called normal species, e.g. cattle, pine, sal, rodents, etc.

Endangered Species: Species which are in danger of extinction are called endangered species, e.g. black buck, crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in Manipur), etc.

Vulnerable Species: If the population of a species has declined to such a level that it is likely to become endangered; it is called vulnerable species, e.g. blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, Gangetic dolphin, etc.

Rare Species: If the population of a species so small that it can become vulnerable or endangered, it is called rare species, e.g. Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert, fox, hornbill, etc.

Endemic Species: A species which found only in a particular geographical area is called an endemic species, e.g. Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, mithun in Arunachal Pradesh, etc.

Extinct Species: A species which no longer exists is called an extinct species. A species may be extinct from a local area, region, country, continent or the entire earth. Examples: Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck, etc.

Causes of Depletion of Flora and Fauna:

Agricultural Expansion: According to the Forest Survey of India, over 262,000 sq km of forest area was converted into agricultural land in India between 1951 and 1980. Moreover, a substantial part of the tribal belts has been deforested or degraded by shifting cultivation.

Enrichment Plantation: Enrichment plantation was done to promote a few favoured species in many parts of India. This practice involves plantation of a single commercially valuable species. This leads to elimination of other species.

Development Projects: Large scale development projects have also contributed significantly to the loss of forests. Over 5,000 sq km of forest was cleared for river valley projects since 1951.

Mining: Mining has also caused large scale depletion of flora and fauna in many areas. For example; the ongoing dolomite mining is seriously threatening the Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal.

Unequal Access to Resources: Social inequality is another major factor to depletion of flora and fauna. The rich people consume much more than the poor and thus cause a higher degree of environmental damage.

Social Effect of Resource Depletion:

In many societies, it is the women who are responsible for collection of fuel, fodder, water and other basic subsistence needs. Depletion of these resources means women need to work harder to collect those resources. At some places, women may have to walk more than 10 km to collect firewood. This causes serious health problems for women.

Deforestation induced flood and draught result in economic misery for the poor.

Deforestation also leads to loss of cultural diversity. The marginalized people who had been traditionally dependent on forest for sustenance are now forced to look for other sources of livelihood. In order to do so, they are uprooted from their traditional habitat and culture.

Benefits of Conservation:

• Conservation helps in preserving ecological diversity and our life support systems; water, air and soil.
• It preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals.

The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972:

In the 1960s and 1970s, the conservationists demanded some rules to protect the wildlife. Conceding to their demand, the government enacted the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. Under this act, an all India list of protected species was published. Hunting was banned to protect the remaining population of some endangered species. Trade in wildlife was restricted and the habitats of wildlife were given legal protection many national parks and wildlife sanctuaries were established by various state governments and the central government. Several projects were announced for protecting specific animals, e.g. Project Tiger.

Government's Categorization of Forests:

Reserved Forests: More than half of the total forest land has been declared reserved forests. These are considered as the most valuable from conservation perspective.

Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the total forest area is protected forest. The protected forests are protected from any further depletion.

Unclassed Forests: Forests which do not come under either of the above two categories are called unclassed forests.

New Trends In Conservation Policy

Increase Biodiversity: The new trend in conservation policy is the focus on biodiversity rather than on a few of its components. So, instead of just focusing on bigger mammals; like tiger and lion, even insects are finding a place in conservation planning. New notifications were issued under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986. As per them; several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles and one dragonfly have been added to the list of protected species. Six species of plants were added to the list in 1991.

Community and Conservation

• Many local communities have recognized that conservation can secure their long-term livelihood. At many places, such communities are coordinating with government officials in conservation efforts.
• At Sariska Tiger Reserve (Rajasthan), villagers have fought against mining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act.
• In many villages, people are protecting habitats and are explicitly rejecting government involvement. For example; the inhabitants of five villages in Alwar district of Rajastahn have declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Soncuri’. They have declared their own set of rules and regulation to protect the wildlife.
• Nature worship is an age old custom in the Hindu religion and in many tribes. Sacred groves in forests are the result of this tradition. Such spots in forests are untouched by human intervention.
• The Mundas and the Santhals of Chhota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus cadmba) trees. Similarly, the tribals of Orissa and Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarinudus indica) and mango (Mangifera indica); as part of wedding rituals.
• Monkeys are considered the representatives of the Hindu god Hanuman. At most of the places people do not harm monkeys or langurs because of this belief. In and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, chinkara, nilgai and peacocks are protected by the community and nobody harms them.
• The Chipko Movement is a good example of community participation in conservation programme.
• Farmers and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown that adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of synthetic chemicals are possible and economically viable.
• The Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme is another example of involvement of local communities in forest management. This programme has been in practice in Orissa since 1988. Under this programme, the local villagers form some institutions and manage the conservation activities. In lieu of that, they get the right to take and utilize some forest resources.

Nationalism In India

SECTION A - THE FIRST WORLD WAR, KHILAFAT AND NON-COOPERATION

The First World War (1914-1918) was a turning point in the history of Indian National Movement.

It created a new political and economic situation.

National Movement spread to new areas, influenced new social groups, developed new modes of struggle. Nationalists could demand new concessions from Great Britain.

But the war did not end hardships caused by it to millions of the poor in India.

Hardships suffered during the war - Huge defence expenditure, rise in prices, famines or crop failure (1918-19-20-21). Nearly 12 to 13 million people died (Census 1921) due to the famine.

Anger caused by forced recruitment of army in the villages. At this stage Gandhiji emerged on the national scene.

New Ideas - Satyagraha, a novel way of fighting the colonial rule in India. A non-aggressive, peaceful mass agitation against oppression and injustice. Gandhiji knew India could never match the British in arms.

Satyagraha means insistence on truth. A moral force, not passive resistance.

Gandhiji organised Satyagraha Movements in Champaran, Bihar (1916), Kheda district of Gujarat (1917) and amongst cotton mill workers in Ahmedabad (1918).

These campaigns established him as the leader of the masses.

Rowlatt Act (1919), Jallianwala Bagh massacre (13 April, 1919) and the Khilafat Movement led Gandhiji to start his Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920.

Khilafat Movement was led by two brothers Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali; was founded to fight for Khilafat rights, and was against the harsh treatment given to the Khalifa, Emperor of the Turkish Empire, after the First World War.

Gandhiji convinced the Congress to join hands with the Khilafat Movement and start a Non-Cooperation Campaign for Swaraj.

Non-Cooperation  with  the  British  rule,  programme  adopted  at  the  Nagpur  Session  of Congress in 1920.

SECTION B - DIFFERING STRANDS WITHIN THE MOVEMENT

Non-Cooperation began in January 1921.

Many groups joined it for their own specific reasons.

Swaraj did mean the same to all.

(i)  Movement in Towns : Middle class took up the fight. Students, teachers, lawyers gave up studies, jobs, practice and joined it in thousands. Council elections boycotted. Foreign goods boycotted. Liquor shops picketed.

(ii)  Movement in the countryside : Peasants and tribals took over the struggle which turned violent at times. In Awadh, Baba Ramchandra fought against landlords and talukdars. In 1920, Jawaharlal Nehru and Baba Ramchandra formed Oudh Kisan Sabha.

In Andhra Pradesh : The peasants of Gudem Hills led a guerilla movement against the British. Their leader, Alluri Sitaram Raju, advocated use of force. He was captured and executed in 1924.

(iii)  Movement in Plantations : Workers in Assam agitated to move freely, a protest against the Inland Emigration Act (1859) which prevented them from leaving the plantation without permission.

The Chauri-Chaura incident of 1922 made Gandhiji call off the movement.

SECTION C - TOWARDS CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE

C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru founded the Swaraj Party within the Congress to fight elections for the Councils and demand reform.

The Simon Commission (1928) led to protests throughout India.

At the Lahore Session of the Congress (Dec. 1929) the Congress adopted the resolution of Complete Swaraj as its goal. 26th January, 1930 to be celebrated as Independence Day.

Gandhiji gave the call for Civil Disobedience Movement.

He chose 'Salt' as the symbol of unity of the nation. Called the 'Salt Tax' as most inhuman.

The movement started on 31 January, 1930. He made eleven demands in a letter to the

Viceroy Lord Irwin. His demands covered every class from industrialists to peasants.

Famous Dandi March began on March 12, 1930. On 6th April 1930, Gandhiji reached Dandi, a village in Gujarat and broke the Salt Law by boiling water and manufacturing salt. Thus began the Civil Disobedience Movement.

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22) attempted to bring the government to a standstill by non-cooperating with the administration.

The Civil Disobedience Movement aimed at paralysing the government by performing illegal acts.

Boycott of foreign goods, non-payment of taxes, breaking forest laws were its main features.

The British Government followed a policy of brutal repression. Arrested all the leaders including Gandhiji and Nehru. Nearly 100,000 people were arrested.

Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, signed a pact with Gandhiji on 5 March, 1931. Gandhiji agreed to attend the Second Round Table Conference and the British agreed to release all political prisoners.

Gandhiji returned from the Second Round Table Conference disappointed in December

1931. Civil Disobedience started again.

By 1934 the Movement lost its momentum.

What  Swaraj  meant  to  different  social  groups  who  joined  the  Civil  Disobedience Movement.

(i)  To the countryside : Rich peasant communities expected the revenue tax to be reduced, when the British refused to do so, they did not rejoin the movement in 1932.

(ii)  The Poor were the peasants who rented the land from landlords. Depression made them unable to pay rent and wanted it to be reduced. Their relationship with the Congress became uncertain.

(iii)  The Business Classes. After the war, their huge profits were reduced, wanted protection against import of foreign goods. The failure of the Round Table Conference, curbed their enthusiasm for the Civil Disobedience Movement.

(iv)  The industrial working class did not participate in a large number. They joined because of low wages and poor working conditions. Congress was reluctant to include workers' demands as it would alienate the industrialists.

(v)  Women  and  the  Civil  Disobedience  Movement.  1930  was  the  year  when  women entered  the  struggle  for  Independence  on  a  massive  scale.  During  Gandhiji's  Dandi March, they joined protest marches, picketed foreign clothes and shops. But Congress did not encourage them or gave them important posts in the organisation.

Limits of Civil Disobedience

The Dalits or the Untouchables did not actively participate in the movement, they demanded reservation of seats, separate electorates. Dr B.R. Ambedkar, the leader of the Dalits, formed an association in 1930, called the Depressed Classes Association. He clashed with Gandhiji.

Gandhiji began a fast unto death against separate electorate. Finally Poona Pact between the two leaders (1932) gave reserved seats in Provincial and Central Councils but were voted by general electorate.

Muslim political organisations also kept away from the Movement.

Congress seemed more visibly associated with Hindu religious nationalist groups. The leader of the Muslim League M.A. Jinnah wanted reserved seats for Muslims in Central Assembly. Civil Disobedience Movement started in an atmosphere of distrust and suspicion between the two communities.

SECTION D - THE SENSE OF COLLECTIVE BELONGING

Collective belonging comes through experiences of common struggles. A common history and fiction, through folklore, songs and popular prints and symbols. Bharat Mata became the symbol of India.

Bakim Chandra Chattopadhyay created the image in his song "Vande Mataram" in his novel  'Anand  Math' (1870s).  Abanindranath  Tagore  painted  Bharat  Mata  as  a  calm, composed, divine and spiritual figure.

Rabindranath Tagore of Bengal and Natesa Sastri of Madras compiled songs, ballads, myths and folklore.

Reinterpretation of History : Indians delved in the past history and discovered India's greatness and achievements in mathematics, literature, religion, culture, philosophy, crafts and trade.

Conclusion : Gandhiji channelised the anger against colonial government into a common

struggle for freedom in the first half of the 20th century. He saw the emergence of a nation wanting to liberate itself from the colonial rule, in spite of all its differences.