Nazism and the Rise of Hitler - Class IX

PPT on the Chapter - Nazism and the Rise of Hitler - Class IX.
Hope will prove beneficial for a clear understanding of this chapter.

http://www.slideshare.net/viduvinodkumar/nazism-and-the-rise-of-hitler

The French Revolution - Class IX

Have tried to make the learning of this chapter easier for the students through a PPT, covers all relevant points as been discussed in the book. Hope students will be benefited by this !

http://www.slideshare.net/viduvinodkumar/french-revolution-14944286

Class IX - Electoral Politics

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS

Q.1. Which of the following statements about the reasons for conducting elections are false?

(a) Elections enable people to judge the performance of the government.

(b) People select the representative of their choice in an election.

(c) Elections enable people to evaluate the performance of the judiciary.

(d) People can indicate which policies they prefer.

Ans. (a) and (c)

Q.2. Which of these is not a good reason to say that Indian elections are democratic?

(a) India has the largest number of voters in the world.

(b) India’s Election Commission is very powerful.

(c) In India, everyone above the age of 18 has a right to vote.

(d) In India, the losing parties accept the electoral verdict.

Ans. The first one — India has the largest number of voters in the world.

Q.3. Match the following :

(a) It is necessary to keep the voters                            (i) there is a fair representation of all  

     list up to date because                                                sections of our society

(b) Some constituencies are reserved for                      (ii) everyone has equal opportunity to 

     SCs and STs so that                                                    elect their representative

(c) Everyone has one and only one vote                       (iii) all candidates must have a fair 

     so that                                                                         chance of competing in elections

(d) Party in power is not allowed to use                       (iv) some people may have moved away 

      government vehicles                                                    because from the area where they voted last

Ans. (a) — (iv),  (b) — (i),  (c) — (ii),  (d) — (iii)

Q.4. List all the different election related activities mentioned in the chapter and arrange them in a time sequence, beginning with the first activity and ending with the last. Some of these activities are given below : releasing election manifestos; counting of votes; making of voters list; election campaign; declaration of election results; casting of votes; ordering of re-poll; announcing election schedule; filing nomination.

Ans. 1st step : Making of voters list

2nd step : Announcing election schedule

3rd step : Division of areas into constituencies

4th step : Filing of nominations

5th step : Parties present their manifestoes

6th step : Election compaign

7th step : Polling day : casting of votes

8th step : Ordering Repoll

9th step : Counting - declaration of election results.

Q.5. Surekha is an  officer in-charge of ensuring free and fair elections in an assembly constituency in a state. Describe what should she focus on for each of the following stages of election :

(a) Election campaign (b) Polling day (c) Counting day

Ans. (a) Surekha should ensure that following unfair means are not used in the campaign by the parties:

(i) Misusing government vehicles, machinery or resources.

(ii) Using any place of worship for election campaign.

(iii) Spending more than the expenditure limit allowed for an election campaign in a constituency.

(iv) Appeal in the name of religion or caste

(v) Ministers shall not lay foundation stones of any projects, take any big policy decisions or make any promises of providing public facilities once elections are announced. In short, to see that ‘Code of Conduct’ is not violated.

(b) Polling Day : There is no campaigning done. All campaigning should stop 36 hours before actual polling starts. No bribing or buying of voters. No rigging. Only voters in the voters list allowed to vote. Identities should be checked. Every voter votes only once, mark is put on the finger. Fair voting is done in the presence of an agent of the candidates.

(c) Counting Day : They should ensure that all EVMs are sealed. All EVMs are opened on the same day in a constituency. Agents of all candidates are present when counting is done. Results declared as soon as counting is done.

Q.6. The table below gives the proportion of different communities among the candidates who won elections to the US Congress. Compare these to the proportion of these communities in the population of the US. Based on this, would you suggest a system of reservations in the US Congress? If yes, why and for which communities? If no, why not?

                                                                                      Proportion of the community

                                                                                         (in per cent) in the

                                                               House of Representatives              Population of US

               Blacks                                                    8                                                13

               Hispanics                                                5                                                13

               Whites                                                    86                                              70

Ans. Students to be divided into groups of 6-7. Each group to hold a discussion and arrive at a conclusion. They must write their views as a group. Teacher must facilitate discussion and help students give their honest opinion.

Q.7. Can we draw the following conclusions from the information given in this chapter? Give two facts to support your position for each of these.

(a) Election Commission of India does not have enough powers to conduct free and fair elections in the country.

(b) There is a high level of popular participation in the elections in our country.

(c) It is very easy for the party in power to win an election.

(d) Many reforms are needed to make our elections completely free and fair.

Ans. (a) No, this is untrue. EC can order a repoll in case unfair means are used in elections. It can punish if a party or a candidate violates the code of conduct for elections.

(b) (i) Yes, in India, unlike USA, it is the illiterate, the uneducated and the underprivileged people who participate more in elections.

(ii) The number of people whose vote has gone up over the years, which proves the popularity of elections.

(c) (i) No, the ‘Code of Conduct’ for elections prohibits the misuse of power and government machinery by the ruling party.

(ii) If the ruling party fails to fulfil people’s expectations, it is voted out as it has been proved in India many times.

(d) Yes, there are some reforms needed :

(i) Candidates with criminal connections have won elections. This should not have happened.

(ii) Some families tend to dominate elections. Tickets are distributed to relatives from these families.

Q.8. Chinappa was convicted for torturing his wife for dowry. Satbir was held guilty of practicing untouchability. The court did not allow either of them to contest elections.

Does this decision go against the principles of democratic elections?

Ans. No, they don’t. Any one convicted of a crime is not allowed to stand for elections, so Chinappa was debarred. Satbir was also guilty of breaking a law by practising untouchability. So he was also debarred.

Q.9. Here are some reports of electoral malpractices from different parts of the world. Is there anything that these countries can learn from India to improve their elections? What would you suggest in each case?

(a) During an election in Nigeria, the officer in charge of counting votes deliberately increased the votes of one candidate and declared him elected. The court later found out that more than five lakh votes cast for one candidate were counted in favour of another.

(b) Just before elections in Fiji, a pamphlet was distributed warning voters that a vote for former Prime Minister, Mahendra Chaudhry, will lead to bloodshed. This was a threat to the voters of Indian origin.

(c) In the US, each state has its own method of voting, its own procedure of counting and its own authority for conducting elections. Authorities in the state of Florida took many controversial decisions that favoured Mr. Bush in the presidential elections in 2000. But no one could change those decisions.

Ans. Nigeria, Fiji and US can follow the Indian example of having a powerful Election Commission which is independent of the government. They should also have a ‘Code of Conduct’ for elections which would stop rigging of votes and parties threatening the voters as they did in Nigeria and Fiji. ‘The Code of Conduct’ should apply to the whole country and different states should not have different rules as in the case of Florida, USA.

Q.10. Here are some reports of malpractices in Indian elections. Identify what the problem in each case is. What should be done to correct the situation?

(a) Following the announcement of elections, the minister promised to provide financial aid to reopen the closed sugar mill.

(b) Opposition parties alleged that their statements and campaign was not given due attention on Doordarshan and All India Radio.

(c) An inquiry by the Election Commission showed that electoral rolls of a state contain name of 20 lakh fake voters.

(d) The hoodlums of a political party were moving with guns, physically preventing supporters of other political parties to meet the voters and attacking meetings of other parties.

Ans. (a) The problem in the first case was to gain some popular votes for the ruling party by making promises after the announcement of elections. This should not have been allowed.

(b) In the second, opposition parties were not given the same time to air their views and campaign for elections by the media — TV and Radio. More time was granted to the ruling party. Each party should have the same access to media and given equal importance by it.

(c) Fake voters list should be condemned, a new census taken, a new electoral voters list prepared by impartial agents.

(d) They should have been arrested and punished. This is use of force in favour of a party and breaks the ‘Code of Conduct’ for elections.

Q.11. Arun was not in class when this chapter was being taught. He came the next day and repeated what he had heard from his father. Can you tell Ramesh what is wrong with these statements?

(a) Women always vote the way men tell them to. So what is the point of giving them the right to vote?

(b) Party politics creates tension in society. Elections should be decided we consensus, not by competition.

(c) Only graduates should be allowed to stand as candidates for elections.

Ans. (a) He is being biased, he is denying the women their right to vote as they like. The constitution promises equality and no discrimination based on gender.

(b) With a population of millions a consensus can never be achieved. It is only through political competition, where the representatives of people are elected can be form a government.

(c) There is no guarantee that only a graduate can represent his/her people and be a good leader and administrator. Knowledge of the people’s needs, a desire to serve honestly is more important and there is no need to be a graduate for it. In India, this would disqualify a number of people from standing for elections.

Class X - POLITICAL PARTIES

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS

Q.1. State the various functions political parties perform in a democracy.

Ans. (i) Political parties contest elections to win the majority and form the government. They choose candidates who are popular personalities known to their voters. In India, they are chosen by the top leaders, in most countries by members of the party.

(ii) Political parties prepare their policies and programmes and make them known to the public. They make every attempt to convince the public that their programme is the best. They organise public meetings, speeches, demonstrations to gain public support. They even announce policy changes if once they are elected.

(iii) Political parties mobilise public opinion on major issues through pressure groups. They not only inform the public, they also seek its support involving problems facing the country.

(iv) Political parties play a major role in making laws for the country. No law can become a

bill unless all parties support it. Parties follow the direction given by their party leaders.

(v) Political parties form an important link between the government and the people. It is easy

for the public to approach their local leader than a government official. The local leader

has to listen to the public demand, otherwise he will lose the next election.

Q.2. What are the various challenges faced by political parties.

Ans. 1. Lack of Internal Democracy : 

(i) Every member of the party does not have a chance to take part in decision making process. (ii) Every member is not consulted before taking a decision. 

(iii) There is no proper organisation or registration of members. 

(iv) Power remains in the hands of a few top leaders, who do not consult ordinary members.

(v) Ordinary members have no information about the internal working of the party.

2. Dynastic succession : With power in the hands of a few top leaders, all party positions go to their family members. These members may not be qualified or have the ability to hold their positions. People who come from weaker sections, or have no contact with the top leaders, cannot rise to the top positions.

3. Money and Muscle Power :  Various political parties contest elections, there is competition and a lot of money is needed. Money is needed to organise demonstrations, public meetings and speeches to publicise the image of the party. Parties choose those candidates who can raise money for the party and win elections with their money. Money power is felt in older democracies like USA also.

4. Meaningful choice to others : In India, like many other countries, the fundamental issues raised by parties are the same. On the economic front, all parties have the same agenda— help the weaker sections, equity and jobs for all, etc. The only difference is the priority they will give to any problem. Voters do not have a meaningful choice. Even leaders keep changing parties, thus confusing the voter.

Q.3. Suggest some reforms to strengthen parties so that they perform their functions well.

Ans. (i) A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties.

(ii) It should be mandatory for political parties to give a minimum number of tickets, about 1/3rd to the women candidates.

(iii)There should be state funding of elections. The government should give parties money to support the election expenses.

Q.4. What is a political party?

Ans. A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and form the government. Its members are people who have common interests, concerns and goals. They agree on a political agenda and policies and try to convince people that their policies are best suited to the country. They put up candidates to fight elections and try to win popular support for their policies. They work for the collective interest of the society and not for a particular section of society.

Q.5. What are the characteristics of a political party?

Ans. (i) A political party has members who agree on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to promote common good.

(ii) It seeks to implement the policies by winning popular support through elections.

(iii) A political party has three components : the leaders, the active members and the followers.

(iv) A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold

power in the government.

Q.6. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the

lists.

        List I                                                                          List II

1. Congress Party                                             A National Democratic Alliance

2. Bharatiya Janata Party                                   B State Party

3. Communist Party of India (Marxist)               C United Progressive Alliance

4. Telugu Desam Party                                      D Left Front

       1  2 3  4

(A) C A B D

(B) C D A B

(C) C A D B

(D) D C A B

Ans. (C)

Q7. Who among the following is the founder of the Bahujan Samaj Party?

A. Kanshi Ram                B. Sahu Maharaj

C. B.R. Ambedkar          D. Jotiba Phule

Ans. (A)

Q.8. What is the guiding philosophy of the Bhartiya Janata Party?

A. Dalit welfare                                    B. Revolutionary democracy

C. Integral humanism                            D. Modernity

Ans. (C)

Q.9. Consider the following statements on parties :

A. Political parties do not enjoy much trust among the people.

B. Parties are often rocked by scandals involving top party leaders.

C. Parties are not necessary to run governments.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) A, B, and C (b) A and B (c) B and C (d) A and C

Ans. (b)

 

Class X. POPULAR STRUGGLES AND MOVEMENTS

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS
Q.1. In what ways do pressure groups and movements exert influence on politics?
Ans. The pressure groups and movements influence politics in various ways. They conduct information campaigns to make the public aware of certain public issues. They hold meetings, use the media to draw the attention to their issue. Their main aim is to get public support, mobilise public opinion in their favour. They organise strikes, dharnas and obstruct government from functioning normally. They show their anger and dissatisfaction with the government policies in this way. Business groups often employ professionals to promote their interests. They sponsor expensive advertisements. They sometimes become members of official bodies and committees and tender advice to the government.

Q.2. Describe the forms of relationship between pressure groups and political parties.
Ans. Pressure groups do not participate directly in party politics. They can have the same ideology as a political party and can take a political position on important issues and can support a political party without standing for elections, etc. The relationship between political parties and pressure groups is both direct and indirect.
Examples :
(i) In Assam, a movement was led by students against ‘foreigners’ (Non-Assamese people). When the Assam movement ended, a new political party was formed called ‘Asom Gana Parishad’. In Tamil Nadu, DMK and AIADMK were formed in this way.
(ii) Trade unions and students organisations in India are affiliated or established by one or another major political party. The leaders of pressure groups are usually leaders of these parties and party activists (direct relationship).

Q.3. Explain how the activities of pressure groups are useful in the functioning of a democratic government.
Ans. Pressure groups help in the deepening of democracy. As long as everyone gets the opportunity, putting pressure on the rulers is not an unhealthy activity in a democracy. Governments can often come under undue pressure from a small group of rich and powerful people. Pressure groups perform a useful role of countering this undue influence of reminding the government of the needs and concerns of ordinary citizens.

Q.4. What is a pressure group? Give a few examples.
Ans. Pressure groups are organisations that attempt to influence government policies. They do not aim to share power, they only promote their interests within a society. These organisations are formed by people of common interests, occupations or work. They work for a common objective.
Examples : Narmada Bachao Andolan, Movements for the Right to Information, Anti-liquor movements, etc.

Q.5. What is the difference between a pressure group and a political party?
Ans. A pressure group is an organised or an unorganised body that tries to promote its interests. These groups are formed, when people who follow the same profession or occupation, have the same interests, share same opinions on issues and have same objectives. They fight and try to achieve a common objective. They do not have any aim or desire to share political power. Political parties contest elections because their aim is to achieve political power. They have more than one interests, they have their own ideology. They represent various interests and have their own way of achieving their aims.

Q.6. Organisations that undertake activities to promote the interests of specific social sections such as workers, employees, teachers and lawyers are called __________________________________ groups
Ans. Sectional interest.

Q.7. Which among the following is the special feature that distinguishes a pressure group
from a political party?
(a) Political parties take political stances, while pressure groups do not bother about political parties.
(b) Pressure groups are confined to a few people, while parties involve a larger number of people.
(c) Pressure groups do not seek to get into power, while political parties do.
(d) Pressure groups do not seek to mobilise people, while political parties do.
Ans. (c) Pressure groups do not seek to get into power, while political parties do.

Q.8.  Match List I (organisations and struggles) with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the List I.
                                       List I                                                                    List II
(1) Organisations that seek to promote the interests of        A. Movements a particular section or group.
(2) Organisations that seek to promote common interest.    B. Political  Parties
(3) Struggles launched for the resolution of a social             C. Sectional interest groups
      problem with or within an organisational structure.
(4) Organisations that mobilise people with a                      D. Public interest groups
      view to win political power.
     1  2  3  4
(a) C D B A
(b) C D A B
(c) D C B A
(d) B C D A
Ans. (b) CDAB

Q.9. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists.
              List I                                      List II
(1) Pressure group                   A. Narmada Bachao Movement
(2) Long-term movement         B. Asom Gana Parishad
(3) Single issue movement        C. Women’s Movement
(4) Political movement             D. Fertiliser Dealers’ Association
     1   2  3  4
(a) D C A B
(b) B A D C
(c) C D B A
(d) B D C A
Ans. (a) DCAB

Q.10. Consider the following statements about pressure groups and political parties.
(a) Pressure groups are organised expression of the interests and views of specific social sections.
(b) Pressure groups take positions on social issues.
(c) All pressure groups are political parties.
(a) A, B and C (b) A and B (c) B and C (d) A and C
Ans. (b) A and B

Class X - The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Class X - The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS

Q.1. Write a note on 

a. Giuseppe Mazzini - Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary, born in Genoa in 1807. He was a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. At the age of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He founded underground societies named ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles and ‘Young Europe’ in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German States.

b. Count Camilo de Cavour - The failure of revolutionary uprisings, both in 1831 and 1848, meant that the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler, King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war. Chief minister Cavour, who led this movement to unify the regions of Italy, was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he spoke French much better than he did Italian. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.

c. The Greek War of Independence - The Greek War of Independence mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated class in Europe. Since the 15th century the Ottoman Empire had made Greece its territory. In 1821 the Greeks struggled against this and a nationalist movement began. Exiled Greeks and many West

Europeans who admired ancient Greek culture supported the Greek nationalists. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. After the war, the Treaty of Constantinople was signed in 1832. It recognised Greece as an independent nation.

d. The Frankfurt Parliament - Middle-class professionals, businessmen, wealthy artists and artisans came together to vote for an all-German National Assembly. They met at Frankfurt on 18 May, 1848, and 831 elected representatives walked to take their places in the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church

of St. Paul. A Constitution was drafted for a German nation which was to be headed by a monarchy, subject to a Parliament. However, Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, rejected the offer to head such a monarchy and opposed the elected assembly. The opposition grew stronger eroding the Parliament. As the middle-class members in the Parliament dominated, they gave no credence to the demands of artisans and workers and so lost their support. The troops were called and the Assembly was also disbanded.

e. The role of women in nationalist struggles - The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were denied suffrage during the election of the Assembly. When the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery.

Q.2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?

Ans. The steps taken to create a sense of collective identity amongst French people by the French

revolutionaries included

(i) Ideas of  la patrie  (the fatherland) and  le citoyen (the citizen) emphasising the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.

(ii) A new French flag, a tricolour.

(iii) A new National Assembly elected by active citizens.

(iv) New hymns, oaths and martyrs commemorated in the name of the nation.

(v) Centralised administrative system.

(vi) Uniform system of weights, measures and abolition of internal customs.

(vii) Discouraging regional dialects and promoting French as a common language of the nation.

Q.3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?

Ans. Female allegories were invented in the 19th century.

(i) In France, she was christened Marianne, underlining the idea of a people’s nation.

(ii) Marianne’s characteristics resembled that of Liberty and Republic, i.e. the red cap, the tricolour and the cockade.

(iii) Marianne’s statues were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it.

(iv) Marianne’s images were marked on coins and stamps.

(v) Germania became the allegory of the German nation.

(vi) In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

Q.4. Briefly trace the process of German unification.

Ans. In the 1800s, nationalist feelings were strong in the hearts of the middle-class Germans. They united in 1848 to create a nation-state out of the numerous German States. But the monarchy and the military got together to repress them and they gained support from the landowners of Prussia (the Junkers) too. Prussia soon became the leader of German unification movement. Its Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck was the architect of the process with support from Prussian army and Prussian bureaucracy. The unification process was completed after Prussia won wars with Austria, Denmark and France over seven years time. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed  the  German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

Q.5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient

in the territories ruled by him?

Ans. In the territories conquered by Napoleon, he introduced a number of reforms as he had done in France. Return to monarchy had damaged democracy in France but Napoleon had introduced revolutionary principles in administration that had changed it for the better. In 1804 the Civil Code, also called Napoleonic Code, was introduced and it did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property. Soon the Code spread to all territories under French control. Administration was simplified, feudal system was abolished and serfs were freed in the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany. In the towns, guild restrictions no longer remained. Transport and

communication systems improved. Artisans, peasants, workers and new businessmen enjoyed the new-found freedom. Businessmen and small-scale producers learnt that uniform laws, standardised weights and measures and a common national currency would help in trading goods and capital from one region to another.

In the French territories, there were mixed reactions. In Holland and Switzerland, Brussels, Mainz, Miland and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as messengers of liberty. But this feeling soon became negative because the people realised that the new administrative method did not go along with political freedom. Soon people detested increased taxes, censorship and forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe.

Q.6. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?

Ans. The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber meaning free. The middle-class believed in the individual’s freedom and that the law must view everyone with equality. On the political front, liberalism denoted government by consent. Liberalism had also symbolised the autocracy’s end and no more clerical privileges. This was followed by a constitution and representative government through Parliament, especially after the French Revolution. 19th century liberals focussed on the inviolability of private property. 

Equality before law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage. We may recall that in revolutionary France, which marked the first political experiment in liberal democracy, the right to vote and to get elected was granted exclusively to the property-owning men.

The Napoleonic Code went back to limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor, subject to the authority of fathers and husbands. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries women and non-propertied men organised opposition movements demanding equal political rights.

In the economic sphere, freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital was liberalism. During the nineteenth century, this was a strong demand of the emerging middle classes.

Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital. In 1834, a customs union or Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German States. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.

Q.7. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.

Ans. The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and territorial expansion. Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation : art and poetry, stories and music helped to express and shape nationalist feelings. Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally became strong critics of reason and science in their glorified forms. The Romanticists dwelt more on emotions, intuition and mystical

feelings. They were aiming at creating a sense of shared collective heritage and common cultural part to serve as the basis of a nation.

German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744 – 1803), a Romantic, claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people — das volk. He claimed that folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances held the true spirit of the nation (Volksgeist). He encouraged collecting and recording these forms of folk culture as essential to the nation-building process.

The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore, as the Grimm brothers (Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in 1812) did, was not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate. Even though Poland no longer existed as an independent territory, national feelings were kept alive there through music and language.

Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place but was ultimately crushed. Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction. As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.

Q.8. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.

Ans. The development of the German and Italian nation states in the nineteenth century

Political fragmentation: Till the middle of the nineteenth century, the present-day nations of Germany and Italy were fragmented into separate regions and kingdoms ruled by different princely houses. 

Revolutionary uprisings: Nineteenth-century Europe was characterized by both popular uprisings of the masses and revolutions led by the educated, liberal middle classes. The middle classes belonging to the different German regions came together to form an all-German National Assembly in 1848. However, on facing opposition from the aristocracy and military, and on losing its mass support base, it was forced to disband.

In the Italian region, during the 1830s, revolutionaries like Giuseppe Mazzini sought to establish a unitary Italian Republic. However, the revolutionary uprisings of 1831 and 1848 failed to unite Italy.

Unification with the help of the army: After the failure of the revolutions, the process of German and Italian unification was continued by the aristocracy and the army. Germany was united by the Prussian chief minister Otto von Bismarck  with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. The German empire was proclaimed in 1871.

The Italian state of Sardinia-Piedmont played a role similar to that played by Prussia. Count Camillo de Cavour (the Chief Minister) led the movement to unite the separate states of nineteenth-century Italy with the help of the army and an alliance with France. The regions annexed by Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Red Shirts joined with the northern regions to form a united Italy. The italian nation was proclaimed in 1861. The papal states joined in 1870.

Q.9.  How was the story of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe ?

Ans. 

(i) In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution.

(ii) The primary identities of  the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones - such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.

(iii) The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the 'United Kingdom of Great Britian' meant that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. Scotland's distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed.

(iv) The Scottish highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.

(v) The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country. Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed. Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.

(vi) The symbols of the new Britain - the British flag, the national  anthem, the English language were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

Q.10. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Ans.
(i). The Balkan region comprised modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro, and its inhabitants were broadly called Slavs.

(ii). With a large area of Balkan region under Ottoman Empire, the spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the breaking up of the Ottoman Empire made the situation even more serious.

(iiii). Ottoman Empire had not been able to become strong even after reforms and modern methods after an effort of nearly 91 years. Gradually most of the European subject nationalities broke away from the Ottoman Empire’s control to declare themselves

independent.

(iv).  The claim for independence and political rights by the Balkan people was based on nationality. They gave examples of history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers.

(v). Thus the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back their long lost independence.

(vi). Soon various Slavic nationalities were struggling to define their identity and independence making Balkan region one having intense conflict.

(vii). The internal rivalries and jealousies made the Balkan states distrust and fear each other.

(viii). As the Balkans had become site for big power fights, the situation became even more serious. The fights were among the European powers who fought for trade and colonies and for naval and military powers.

(ix). Russia, Germany, England and Austria-Hungary wanted to gain control of the Balkan region causing many wars which culminated in the First World War.