Federalism

Federalism: Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country. Usually, a federation has two levels of government. One is the government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few subjects of common national interest. The others are governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the day-to-day administering of their state. Both these levels of governments enjoy their power independent of the other.

Key Features of Federalism:

• There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government.
• Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
• The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution. So the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
• The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government.
• Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers.
• Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
• The federal system thus has dual objectives: to safeguard and promote unity of the country, while at the same time accommodate regional diversity.

Therefore, two aspects are crucial for the institutions and practice of federalism. Governments at different levels should agree to some rules of power sharing. They should also trust that each would abide by its part of the agreement. An ideal federal system has both aspects: mutual trust and agreement to live together.

Balance of Power:

The exact balance of power between the central and the state government varies from one federation to another. This balance depends mainly on the historical context in which the federation was formed.

There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed; which are as follows:

Coming together federations:

This type of federation exists in the USA, Switzerland and Australia. Independent states came together on their own to form a bigger unit so that they could increase their security; while maintaining their sovereignty. In this type of federation, the constituent states have equal power and are stronger vis-à-vis the central government.

Holding together federation: This type of federation exists in India, Spain, Belgium, etc. In this case, power is shared among various social groups to accommodate a huge diversity. In this type of federation, the central government is more powerful than the state government. Different constituents of the federation may have unequal powers. Some units are granted special powers, e.g. the case of Jammu & Kashmir in India.

The Indian Federation:

The word ‘federation’ has not been used in the constitution of India, but the Indian Union was formed on the basis of federalism.

The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government. The Union Government or Central Government represents the Union of India and the State governments represent the provinces. Later, a third tier was added in the federation; with the formation of Panchayats and Municipalities.

List of Jurisdiction:

Union List: Union List includes subjects of national importance; such as defence of the country, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency. They are included in this list because we need a uniform policy on these matters throughout the country. The Union Government alone can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the Union List.

State List: State List contains subjects of State and local importance such as police, trade, commerce, agriculture and irrigation. The State Governments alone can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the State List.

Concurrent List: Concurrent List includes subjects of common interest to both the Union Government as well as the State Governments, such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession. Both the Union as well as the State Governments can make laws on the subjects mentioned in this list. If their laws conflict with each other, the law made by the Union Government will prevail.

Residuary List: Anything out of purview of above mentioned list is taken as residuary subject. Union Government has the power to legislate on these subjects.

Special Status: Jammu and Kashmir has its own Constitution. Many provisions of the Indian Constitution are not applicable to this State without the approval of the State Assembly. Indians who are not permanent residents of this State cannot buy land or house here. Similar special provisions exist for some other States of India as well.

Union Territories:

There are some units of the Indian Union which enjoy very little power. These are areas which are too small to become an independent State but which could not be merged with any of the existing States. These areas, like Chandigarh, or Lakshadweep or the capital city of Delhi, are called Union Territories. These territories do not have the powers of a State. The Central Government has special powers in running these areas.

This sharing of power between the Union Government and the State governments is basic to the structure of the Constitution. It is not easy to make changes to this power sharing arrangement. The Parliament cannot on its own change this arrangement. Any change to it has to be first passed by both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-thirds majority. Then it has to be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total States.

Federalism

Reasons for Success of Federalism in India

Linguistic States: The creation of Linguistic States was the first and a major test for democratic politics in our country. This was done to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived in the same State. Some States were created not on the basis of language but to recognise the differences based on culture, ethnicity or geography, e.g. Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand.

Language policy: A second test for Indian federation is the language policy. Our Constitution did not give the status of national language to any one language. Hindi was identified as the official language. But Hindi is the mother tongue of only about 40 per cent of Indians. Therefore, there were many safeguards to protect other languages. Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognised as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution. Hindi was not imposed on non-Hindi areas for most of the period after the independence.

Centre-State relations: Restructuring the Centre-State relations is one more way in which federalism has been strengthened in practice.

Situation during Congress Monopoly:

 For a major period; after independence; same party was in power in both centre and states in most parts of the country. Those were the days of Congress monopoly in India. In those days, the central government often undermined the rights of the state governments. Many states were brought under President’s rule at slight pretext of assertiveness from the state government.

Situation in the Era of Coalition Government:

After 1989, the pattern has shifted to multi-party coalition government at the centre. As a result a new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of State Governments has developed. It can be said that now the federalism is more developed in India.

Linguistic diversity of India

As per the latest Census Report, 1991 of India held in 1991 there are 1500 distinct languages. These languages were grouped together under some major languages. For example languages like Bhojpuri, Magadhi, Bundelkhandi, Chhattisgarhi, Rajasthani, Bhili and many others were grouped together under ‘Hindi’. Even after this grouping, the Census found 114 major languages. Of these 22 languages are now included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution and are therefore called ‘Scheduled Languages’. Others are called ‘non- Scheduled Languages’. In terms of languages, India is perhaps the most diverse country in the world.

Decentralisation in India:

A vast country like India cannot be run only through two-tiers of government as discussed above. Some of the Indian states are bigger than independent countries of Europe. The population of Uttar Pradesh is more than that of Russia. These states are internally very diverse in terms of variety of dialects, eating habits and culture.

Hence, a need for creating a third tier of government was always being felt. There are many local issues which can only be solved by a local governing body. It is also possible to ensure direct participation of people in such a governing body.

A major step towards decentralisation was taken in 1992. The Constitution was amended to make the third-tier of democracy more powerful and effective. The local governing bodies were given constitutional status.

• Now it is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.
• Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and the executive heads of these institutions for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
• At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
• An independent institution called the State Election Commission has been created in each State to conduct panchayat and municipal elections.
• The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local government bodies. The nature of sharing varies from State to State. Rural local government is popularly known by the name panchayati raj.
• Each village, or a group of villages in some States, has a gram panchayat. This is a council consisting of several ward members, often called panch. The president of the panchayat is called sarpanch.
• Members of a panchayat are directly elected by the all the adults who are living in the panchayat.
• The local government structure goes right up to the district level. A few gram panchayats are grouped together to form what is usually called a panchayat samiti or block or mandal. The members of this representative body are elected by all the panchyat members in that area. All the panchayat samitis or mandals in a district together constitute the zilla (district) parishad. Most members of the zilla parishad are elected. Members of the Lok Sabha and MLAs of that district and some other officials of other district level bodies are also its members. Zilla parishad chairperson is the political head of the zilla parishad.

Similarly, local government bodies exist for urban areas as well. Municipalities are set up in towns. Big cities are constituted into municipal corporations. Both municipalities and municipal corporations are controlled by elected bodies consisting of people’s representatives. Municipal chairperson is the political head of the municipality. In a municipal corporation such an officer is called the mayor.

Gender, Religion and Caste

Gender and Politics

Sexual Division of Labour: A system in which all work inside the home is either done by the women of the family, or organised by them through the domestic helpers.

Feminist Movements: Various movements which are aimed at ensuring equal rights for women are called feminist movement.

Political expression of gender question helped a lot to improve women’s role in public life. Although the Indian society is still a patriarchal society, yet women are now working in many fields.

Women face disadvantage, discrimination and oppression in various ways:

• The literacy rate among women is only 54 per cent compared with 76 per cent among men.
• The percentage of women in highly paid jobs is still very small. At many workplaces, women are paid less than men for the same job. An Indian woman usually works more hour than an average man on a daily basis.
• Many Indian parents prefer to have a male child. A girl child is killed before her birth in many cases. This has led to an eschewed sex ratio in India.
• There are many reports of harassment against women; both on the domestic front and outside the home.

Women’s political representation:

The political representation of women had been very poor in the Indian legislatures. Even in the cabinet, the number of women ministers is very low.

One-third of seats in local government bodies have been reserved for women candidates. This has helped in increasing women’s representation in panchayats and municipalities.

A bill for providing one-third reservation in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies has been pending in the Parliament for more than a decade. Political parties are yet to arrive at consensus on this issue.

Religion & Politics:

Religion also plays an important role in politics. In some countries, politicians promote the cause of the majority religious group at the cost of the minorities. This produces a dangerous trend of majority tyranny.

Communalism: When one religion is pitted against another; by the political class, this is called communalism or communal politics.

Communalism can take various forms in politics:

Many people think of their religion as superior to all other religions. Such people often try to dominate the people from other communities. This can result in people from the minority community to form a separate political unit.

Sometimes, sacred symbols, religious leaders, emotional appeal, etc. are used to instill a sense of fear among people of a particular community. This is done with an attempt to polarize people on communal lines.

Communalism can also take the ugly form of communal violence, riots and massacre.

Secular state

• The Constitution of India declares that India is a secular state. Unlike some of the neighbouring countries, there is no official religion for the Indian state.
• The constitution gives the people the freedom to practice a religion of their choice. The Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion.
• The Indian constitution, however, allows the state to intervene in the matters of religion whenever there is a need to ensure equality within religious communities.

Caste and politics

Social division on the lines of caste is unique to India. The caste system of the present has evolved from the varna system which was based on occupations and on the principle that an occupation passed from one generation to another. Members of a particular caste usually have a sense of belonging to their own community. Some castes are accorded a higher status compared to many other castes.

Current Status of Caste Related Prejudice:

Due to various socio-economic changes, social division on the basis of caste has been blurring in recent times. Economic development, large scale urbanization, literacy, occupational mobility and weakening of the position of landlords in villages have helped in blurring the caste-based divisions.

Caste is still an important parameter when it comes to finalizing marriages. But in most of the other spheres of life, caste effect is apparently waning in India.

People from the upper caste had traditionally better access to the education and hence they have done well in economic development. People from the oppressed castes are still lagging behind in socio-economic development.

Caste in Politics

• Most of the political parties keep the caste calculation in mind while fielding a candidate from a particular constituency.
• Each caste group is trying to get a bigger pie of the political power by asserting its identity in various ways.
• Since there are so many castes, hence various caste groups have also evolved their own coalition to get leverage in political bargaining.
• The caste groups can be broadly divided into ‘backward’ and ‘forward’
• Exclusive attention to caste can produce negative results. Caste divisions often lead to social conflict and even violence.

Caste inequality today

• Economic inequalities exist on the basis of caste. The upper caste people are usually well off, the backward classes come in between and the dalits and adivasis are at the bottom.
• The percentage of people below poverty line is much higher among the lowest castes.

Democracy in The Contemporary World

Democracy: The classic definition of democracy says that it is government for the people, of the people and by the people. In other words, democracy is a form of government in which people are allowed to choose their rulers. Following are the two important features of democracy:

(a) Only elected leaders by people rule the country.

(b) People have freedom to express views, freedom to organize and freedom to protest.

The Changing Map of Democracy

Note: These maps are taken from NCERT Text Book

The world map given here shows democratic governments from 1900 to 1950. The countries which are shaded in red had already become democracies before 1900. The countries shaded in yellow became democracies between 1900 and 1970.

This world map shows democratic countries in 1975. Compared to the earlier map, the number of democratic countries has increased in this map. This was mainly because of freedom of many countries from colonialism. The end of colonialism resulted in the birth of many new nations during this period and many of them preferred for democratic rule.

This world map shows democratic countries in 2000. It can be said that most of the countries became democratic by this period. Collapse of the Soviet Union in the 1990s and subsequent collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe and many other parts of the world led to rise of democracies around the world. This map also shows that a major portion of Africa is yet to embrace democracy. Additionally, China and some central Asian countries are the regions where democracy has not taken roots.

Phases in the Expansion of Democracy

The process of democratization began with the French Revolution in 1789. It took about 100 years of struggle for France and many other European countries to develop into proper democracies.

The process of democratization of Britain began much earlier than in France. It was a comparatively peaceful process.

The British colonies in the North America declared their independence in 1776 and established democratic regime. Hence, USA is known as the oldest democracy in the world. The USA adopted its democratic constitution in 1787.

Many changes took place during Europe’s struggle for democracy. It took many years of constant struggle to secure universal adult franchise. New Zealand was the first country to grant voting rights to women. Early democracies were established in North America, Europe and Latin America.

End of Colonialism

The colonialism was beginning to end after the end of the Second World War. Many colonies became independent within a short period after the Second World War. India was one of them.

While India continues to be a thriving democracy, many former colonies experience various ups and downs. Military coups became the norm in many former colonies and democratic regimes were overthrown by dictatorial regimes, e.g. Ghana, Pakistan, Myanmar, etc.

The next big push for democracy came with revival of democracy in many Latin American countries; like Chile.

The collapse of the Soviet Union further accelerated this process. Communist regimes in many countries came to an end and paved the way for democratic regimes. At present, more than 140 countries have multi-party democracies.

Democracy at the Global Level

There are certain issues which do not come under the purview of a country or even under a small group of countries. These issues are discussed and resolved at various international forums.

United Nations is a world organization which makes convention on international law, security, global cooperation and social equality. The UN Secretary General is its chief administrative officer.

Important issues on international security are discussed and resolved by the UN Security Council.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank lends money to governments as per the situation.

These organizations are association of different countries. Initially, they came into origin because of initiative of the developed and powerful countries. The power equation in these organizations depends on the relative amount of fund received by a particular country. Since USA is the largest contributor of funds, hence it enjoys the maximum power. There are times when a decision made by the world bodies may not be democratic at all.

The UN Security Council has 5 permanent members and 10 temporary members. The 10 temporary members are elected by the General Assembly for two year term. The permanent members enjoy veto power in the Security Council. There are many examples of misuse of veto power by the permanent members.

The International Monetary Fund presents the same situation. More than 52% of its votes is contributed by 10 member countries, viz. US, Japan, Germany, France, UK, China, Italy, Saudi Arabia, Canada and Russia. The World Bank has a similar system of voting. The President of the World Bank has always been a US citizen and is nominated by the Treasury Secretary of the US government.

Promotion of Democracy

Many democratic regimes in the world believe in promoting democracy so that remaining non-democratic regimes should change. While the idea of promotion is very good, some countries have tried to enforce democracy in some other countries. The case of Iraq is a good example. It was ruled by the dictator Saddam Hussein. Although he earned bad repute because of annihilation of his political opponents, we should not forget that he gave liberties to women and pupil during his rule. USA attacked Iraq on the pretext of finding the weapons of mass destruction and for establishing a democratic regime. Saddam Hussein was finally captured and tried for several offences. An interim government of US’ choice was installed in Iraq after that.

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India: Size and Location

India: Location:-

The main land of India extends between latitudes 8°4'N and 37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E. The Tropic of Cancer (23° 30'N) passes almost through the middle of the country. Apart from the mainland, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Indian Ocean) and the Lakshadweep (Arabian Sea) are also parts of India.

India: SIZE

The land mass of India has an area of 3.28 million (3.28 lakh) square km; which comprises about 2.4% of the total geographical area of the world. India is the seventh largest country in the world.

The land boundary of India is 15,200 km. The coastline of the country is 7,516.6 km; which includes the Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep.

The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India is about 30°. The time along the Standard Meridian is taken as the Indian Standard Time. The Standard Meridian of India passes through Mirzapur in UP which is located at 82°30’ east. The time lag between Arunachal Pradesh (in the east) and Gujarat (in the west) is about 2 hours. When one moves from south to north, the latitudinal extent influences the duration of day and night.

INDIA AND THE WORLD

India is centrally located between the East and the West Asia. India is strategically located at the centre of the trans-Indian Ocean routes which connect the European countries in the west and the countries of East Asia. Thus, India could establish close contact with West Asia, Africa and Europe from the western coast. Moreover, it could establish close contact with Southeast and East Asia from the eastern coast.

India’s Neighbours:

In the northwest, India shares its boundaries with Pakistan and Afghanistan. China and Nepal are its northern neighbours. Its eastern neighbours are Bangladesh and Myanmar. Maldives and Sri Lanka are its southern neighbours.

Drainage

Drainage:The river system of an area is called drainage. The area drained by a single river system is called the drainage basin.

Drainage Patterns:

Depending on the slope of land, underlying rock structure and climate of an area, the streams in a drainage basin form certain patters. Different types of drainage pattern are as follows:

1. Dendritic Drainage Pattern: When the river channel follows the slope of the terrain, it develops dendritic pattern. The stream and its tributaries resemble the branches of a tree. Hence, it is called dendritic pattern.
    
2. Trellis Drainage Pattern: When a river is joined by its tributaries at almost right angles, it develops a trellis pattern. Trellis pattern develops where hard and soft rocks exist parallel to each other.
    
3. Rectangular Drainage Pattern: When rocks are strongly joined, then rectangular pattern develops.
    
4. Radial Drainage Pattern: When the streams flow in different directions from a central peak or dome like structure, a radial pattern is developed.

It is important to note that a combination of different patterns may develop in the same drainage basin.

The drainage systems in India can be divided into two major groups, viz. the Himalayan Rivers and the Peninsular Rivers.

The Himalayan Rivers: Most of the Himalayan Rivers are perennial, i.e. they have water throughout the year.

River System: A river alongwith its tributaries forms a river system.

The Indus River System:

• The river Indus originates in Tibet; near Lake Mansarowar. It enters India in the Ladakh district of Jammu & Kashmir.
• Zaskar, Nubra, Shyok and Hunza are the main tributaries which join the Indus in Kashmir region.
• After flowing through Baltistan and Gilgit, the Indus emerges from the mountains at Attock.
• Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum join together and enter the Indus near Mithankot in Pakistan. After that, the Indus flows southwards and finally reaches the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.
• Indus is 2900 km long. The Indus plain has a very gentle slope. A little over one-third of the Indus basin is located in India; in the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. The rest of the portion is in Pakistan.

The Ganga River System

• The headwaters of Ganga are called Bhagirathi. It is fed by the Gnagotri Glacier. It is joined by Alaknanda at Devprayag in Uttarakhand.
• Ganga emerges from the mountains on to the plains at Haridwar.
• Yamuna, Ghaghra, Gandak and Kosi are the major tributaries of Ganga. Yamuna originates from the Yamunotri Glacier in the Himalayas. It meets Ganga at Allahabad.
• Gaghra, Gandak and Kosi rise in the Nepal Himalaya.
• Chambal, Betwa and Son are the major tributaries which come from the peninsular uplands.
• After taking waters from various tributaries, Ganga flows towards east till Farakka (West Bengal). The river bifurcates at Farakka. The Bhagirathi-Hooghly (a distributary) flows towards south to the Bay of Bengal.
• The mainstream flows southwards into Bangladesh; where it is joined by the Brahmaputra. It is known as Meghan; further downstream.
• Finally, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra flow into the Bay of Bengal forming the Sunderban Delta. The total length of Ganga is 2500 km.

The Brahmaputra River System:

• The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet; east of Mansarowar lake. It is a little longer than the Indus. Most of the course of the Brahmaputra lies outside India. It flows eastwards parallel to the Himalayas.
• After reaching Namcha Barwa, it enters India in Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge. It is known as Dihang in this region. It is joined by Dibang, Lohit, Kenula and many other tribuatries and finally forms the Brahmaputra in Assam.
• Unlike other north Indian rivers the Brahmaputra gets huge deposits of silt on its bed. This results in rising of the river bed. It also shifts its channel frequently.

The Peninsular Rivers: Most of the Peninsular Rivers are seasonal because they depend on rainfall for water. These rivers have shorter and shallower courses; compared to the Himalayan rivers. Most of the major rivers of the Peninsula flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers make deltas at their mouths. The Narmada and Tapi are the only long rivers, which flow westwards and make estuaries. The drainage basins of the peninsular rivers are smaller in size.

The Narmada Basin: The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak hills in the Madhya Pradesh. The Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. All the tributaries of the Narmada are very short. Most of the tributaries join the Narmada at right angles.

The Tapi Basin: The Tapi rises in the Satpura ranges, in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. The basin of Tapi covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.

The Godavari Basin: This is the longest Peninsular river. Its drainage basin is also the largest among the peninsular river basins. The Godavari is about 1500 km long. It originates from the slopes of the Western Ghats in Nasik district of Maharashtra and drains into the Bay of Bengal. The Godavari basin covers parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. Purna, Wardha, Pranhita, Manjra, Waiganga and Penganga are the main tributaries of Godavari.

The Mahanadi Basin: This river originates in the highlands of Chhattisgarh and drains into the Bay of Bengal. It is about 860 km long. The Mahanadi basin covers Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Orissa.

The Krishna Basin: The Krishna originates near Mahabaleshwar and drains into the Bay of Bengal. It is about 1400 km long. Tungbhadra, Koyana, Ghatprabha, Musi and Bhima are some of its tributaries. The Krishna basin covers Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

The Kaveri Basin: The Kaveri originates in the Brahmagiri range of the Western Ghats and drains into the Bay of Bengal. It is about 760 km long. Amravati, Bhavani, Hemavati and Kabini are its main tributaries. The Kavery basin covers Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

LAKES

A large water body which is surrounded by land is called a lake. Most of the lakes are permanent, while some contain water only during the rainy season. Lakes are formed by the action of glaciers and ice sheets, by wind, river action and by human activities.

Ox-bow Lake: A lake formed when a meandering river is cut off from the mainstream. The shape of this lake resembles an ox-bow.

Lagoon: When the lake is formed by spits and bars in coastal areas, it is called a lagoon. Chilika lake, Pulicat lake, Kolleru lake, etc. are examples of lagoon.

Glacial Lake: A lake formed by melting of glacier is called a glacial lake. Most of the lakes in the Himalayan region are glacial lakes.

Wular lake (Jammu & Kashmir) is the largest freshwater lake in India. It was formed by tectonic activity.

Benefits of a Lake: A lake helps in preventing flood by regulating the flow of river. During dry seasons, a lake helps to maintain an even flow of the river. Lakes can also be used for generating hydel power.

Role of rivers in the economy: Rivers have been the centre of human civilization since ancient times. Even today, many big cities are situated on the bank of a river. River water is used for irrigation, navigation, hydroelectricity, fisheries, etc.

River Pollution: The growing domestic, municipal, industrial and agricultural demand for water from rivers naturally affects the quality of water. As a result, more and more water is being drained out of the rivers reducing their volume. On the other hand, a heavy load of untreated sewage and industrial effluents are emptied into the rivers. This affects not only the quality of water but also the self-cleansing capacity of the river.

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Cut Off Marks at 20 Percentile of Successful Candidates from Various Boards for the Year 2014
Andhra Pradesh - 91.8
Tamil Nadu - 90.9
Kerala - 85.2
CBSE - 81.6
Jammu & Kashmir - 73.8
Meghalaya - 58
Jharkhand - 56
Assam - 56
Tripura - 51
http://myexam.allen.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/JEE-Advanced-2014-percentile1413.pdf